BOOK XVII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF THE CULTIVATED TREES.
CHAP. 1. (1.)—TREES WHICH HAVE BEEN SOLD AT ENORMOUS
PRICES.
WE have described the trees which grow spontaneously on
land and in the sea,
1 and it now remains for us to speak of
those which owe their formation, properly speaking, rather than
birth, to art and the inventive genius of man.
2 Here, however, I cannot but express my surprise, that after the state of
penury in which man lived, as already described,
3 in primitive
times, holding the trees of the forest in common with the wild
beasts, and disputing with them the possession of the fruits
that fell, and with the fowls of the air that of the fruits as they
hung on the tree, luxury has now attached to them prices so
enormous.
The most famous instance, in my opinion, of this excess, was
that displayed by L. Crassus and Cneius Domitius Ahenobarbus. Crassus was one of the most celebrated of the Roman
orators; his house was remarkable for its magnificence, though
in some measure surpassed even by that of Q. Catulus,
4
also upon the
Palatine Hill; the same Catulus, who, in conjunction with C. Marius, defeated the Cimbri. But by far
the finest house of all that period, it was universally acknowledged, was that of C. Aquilius, a Roman of Equestrian rank,
situate upon the Viminal Hill; a house, indeed, that conferred
a greater degree of celebrity upon him than even his acquaintance with the civil law. This, however, did not prevent
Crassus being reproached with the magnificence of his. Crassus and Domitius, members, both of them, of the most illus-
trious families, after holding the consulship,
5 were appointed
jointly to the censorship, in the year from the building of the
City 662, a period of office that was fruitful in strife, the
natural result of their dissimilarity of character. On one occasion, Cneius Domitius, naturally a man of hasty temper, and
inflamed besides by a hatred that rivalry only tends to stimulate, gravely rebuked Crassus for living, and he a Censor too,
in a style of such magnificence, and in a house for which, as
he said, he himself would be ready to pay down ten millions
of sesterces. Crassus, a man who united to singular presence
of mind great readiness of wit, made answer that, deducting
six trees only, he would accept the offer; upon which Domitius replied, that upon those terms he would not give so much
as a single denarius for the purchase. "
Well then, Domitius," was the rejoinder of Crassus, "which of the two is it
that sets a bad example, and deserves the reproof of the censorship; I, who live like a plain man in a house that has
come to me by inheritance, or you, who estimate six trees
at a value of ten millions of sesterces?"
6 These trees were
of the lotus
7 kind, and by the exuberance of their branches
afforded a most delightful shade. Cæcina Largus, one of the
grandees of Rome, and the owner of the house, used often to
point them out to me in my younger days; and, as I have already made mention
8 of the remarkable longevity of trees, I
would here add, that they were in existence down to the period when the Emperor Nero set fire to the City, one hundred
and eighty years after the time of Crassus; being still green
and with all the freshness of youth upon them, had not that
prince thought fit to hasten the death of the very trees even.
Let no one, however, imagine that the house of Crassus was
of no value in other respects, or that, from the rebuke of Domitius, there was nothing about it worthy of remark with the
exception of these trees. There were to be seen erected in the
atrium four columns of marble from Mount Hymettus,
9 which
in his ædileship he had ordered to be brought over for the decoration of the stage;
10 and this at a time, too, when no public
buildings even as yet possessed any pillars made of that material. Of such recent date is the luxury and opulence which
we now enjoy, and so much greater was the value which in
those days trees were supposed to confer upon a property!
A pretty good proof of which, was the fact that Domitius even,
with all his enmity, would not keep to the offer he had made,
if the trees were not to be included in the bargain.
The trees have furnished surnames also to the ancients,
11 such,
for instance, as that of Fronditius to the warrior who swam
across the Volturnus with a wreath of leaves on his head, and
distinguished himself by his famous exploits in the war against
Hannibal; and that of Stolo
12 to the Licinian family, such being
the name given by us to the useless suckers that shoot from
trees; the best method of clearing away these shoots was
discovered by the first Stolo, and hence his name. The ancient
laws also took the trees under their protection; and by the
Twelve Tables it was enacted, that he who should wrongfully
cut down trees belonging to another person, should pay twenty-five asses for each. Is it possible then to imagine that they,
who estimated the fruit-trees at so low a rate as this, could ever
have supposed that so exorbitant a value would be put upon the
lotus as that which I have just mentioned? And no less mar-
vellous, too, are the changes that have taken place in the value
of fruit; for at the present day we find the fruit alone of many
of the trees in the suburbs valued at no less a sum than two
thousand sesterces; the profits derived from a single tree thus
being more than those of a whole estate in former times. It
was from motives of gain that the grafting of trees and the
propagation thereby of a spurious offspring was first devised,
so that the growth of the fruits even might be a thing interdicted to the poor. We shall, therefore, now proceed to
state in what way it is that such vast revenues are derived
from these trees, and with that object shall set forth the true
and most approved methods of cultivation; not taking any
notice of the more common methods, or those which we find
generally adopted, but considering only those points of doubt
and uncertainty, in relation to which practical men are most
apt to find themselves at a loss: while, at the same time, to
affect any scrupulous exactness in cases where there is no
necessity for it, will be no part of our purpose. In the first
place, however, we will consider in a general point of view,
those influences of soil as well as weather which are exercised
upon all the trees in common.
CHAP. 2. (2.)—THE INFLUENCE OF WEATHER UPON THE TREES:
WHAT IS THE PROPER SITUATION FOR THE VINE.
Trees are fond of a site more particularly that faces the
north-east;
13 the breezes rendering their foliage more thick and
exuberant, and imparting additional solidity to the wood. This
is a point, however, upon which most people are very greatly
deceived; thus in vineyards, for instance, the props ought not
to be placed in such a position as to shelter the stems from the
wind in that quarter, it being only against the northern blasts
that this precaution should be taken. Nay, even more than this
—if the cold weather only comes on in due season, it contributes
very materially to the strengthening of the trees, and promotes
the process of germination; while, on the other hand, if at that
period the southern
14 breezes should caress them, they will grow
weak and languid, and more particularly so, if the blossom is
just coming on. If rainy weather, too, should happen to
follow close upon blossoming, the total destruction of the fruit
is the necessary result: indeed, if the weather should be only
cloudy, or south winds happen to prevail, it is quite sufficient
to ensure the loss of the fruit in the almond and the pear.
15
Rains, if prevalent about the rising of the Vergiliæ,
16 are most
injurious to the vine and the olive,
17 as it is at that season that
germination
18 is commencing with them; indeed, this is a most
critical four days for the olive, being the period at which the
south wind, as we have already
19 stated, brings on its dark and
lowering clouds. The cereals, too, ripen more unfavourably
when south winds prevail, though at the same time it proceeds with greater rapidity. All cold, too, is injurious to vegetation, which comes with the northern winds, or out of the
proper season. It is most advantageous to all plants for
north-east winds
20 to prevail throughout the winter.
In this season, too, showers are very necessary, and the reason is self-evident—the trees, being exhausted by the fruit
they have borne, and weakened by the loss of their leaves, are,
of course, famished and hungry; and it is the showers that
constitute their aliment. Experience has led us to believe
that there is nothing more detrimental than a warm winter;
for it allows the trees, the moment they have parted with
their fruits, to conceive again, or, in other words, to germinate,
and then exhaust themselves by blossoming afresh. And
what is even worse than this, should there be several years of
such weather in succession, even the trees themselves will die;
for there can be little doubt that the effort must of necessity
be injurious, when they put forth their strength, and are at
the same time deprived of their natural sustenance. The poet
21
then, who has said that serene winters are to be desired, certainly did not express those wishes in favour of the trees.
And no more does rain, if prevalent at the summer-solstice,
conduce to the benefit
22 of the vine: while, at the same time,
to say that a dusty winter produces a luxuriant harvest, is certainly the mistake of a too fertile imagination. It is a thing
greatly to be wished, too, both in behalf of the trees as well as
the cereals, that the snows should lie for a considerable time
upon the ground; the reason being that they check the escape
of the spirit of the earth by evaporation, and tend to throw it
back again upon the roots of the plants, adding greatly to
their strength thereby; and not only this, but they afford a
gradual supply of moisture as well, that is both pure and of
remarkable lightness, from the fact that snow is only the
foam of the waters of heaven. Hence it is that the moisture
of snow does not drench and engulph everything all at once,
but gradually trickles downwards, in proportion to the thirst of
the plant, nurturing it as though from the breast, instead of
producing an inundation. The earth, too, ferments under this
influence, and becomes filled with her own emanations: not
exhausted by the seeds in her bosom, swollen as they are with
milk,
23 she smiles in the warm and balmy hours, when the time
comes for opening it. It is in this way, more particularly,
that corn fattens apace, except, indeed, in those climates in
which the atmosphere is always warm, Egypt for example; for
there the continuance of the same temperature and the force of
habit are productive of the same effects as the modifications of
temperature in other countries.
At the same time it is equally necessary in every climate
that there should be no noxious influence in existence. Thus,
for instance, in the greater part of the world, that precocious
germination which has been encouraged by the indulgent temperature of the weather, is sure to be nipped by the intense colds
that ensue. Hence it is that late winters are so injurious,
and such they prove to the trees of the forest even; indeed,
these last are more particularly exposed to the ill effects of a
late winter, oppressed as they are by the density of their
foliage, and human agency being unable to succour them; for
it would be quite impossible to cover
24 the more tender forest
trees with wisps of straw. Rains, then, are favourable to
vegetation-first of all, during the winter season, and next,
just previously to germination; the third period for them being
that of the formation of the fruit, though not immediately,
and only, in fact, when the produce of the tree shows itself
strong and healthy.
Those trees which are the slowest in bringing their fruits to
maturity, and require a more prolonged supply of nutriment,
receive benefit also from late rains, such as the vine, the olive,
and the pomegranate, for instance. These rains, however, are
required at different seasons by the different trees, some of
them coming to maturity at one period and some at another;
hence it is that we see the very same rain productive of injury
to some trees and beneficial to others, even when they are of the
very same species, as in the pear for instance: for the winter
pear stands in need of rain at one period, and the early pear at
another, though at the same time they, all of them, require it
in an equal degree. Winter precedes the period of germination, and it is this fact that makes the north-east wind more
beneficial than the south, and renders the parts that lie in the
interior preferable to those near the coast,-the former being
generally the coldest,-mountainous districts better than level
ones, and rain at night better than showers in the day. Vegetation, too, receives a greater degree of benefit from the water
when the sun does not immediately soak it up.
Connected, too, with this subject is the question of the best
situation for planting vines, and the trees which support them.
Virgil
25 condemns a western aspect, while there are some persons,
again, who prefer it to an easterly one: I find, however, that
most authors approve of the south, though I do not think that
any abstract precepts
26 can be given in relation to the point.
The most careful attention on the part of the cultivator ought
to be paid to the nature of the soil, the character of the locality, and the respective influences of climate. The method of
giving to the vine a southern aspect, as practised in Africa and
* * * * is injurious to the tree, as well as unhealthy for
the cultivator, from the very circumstance that the country
itself lies under a southern meridian: hence it is, that he who
selects for his plants there a western or a northerly aspect, will
combine on the most advantageous terms the benefits of soil
with those of climate. When Virgil condemns a western aspect,
there can be no doubt that he includes in his censure a northern
aspect as well: and yet, in Cisalpine Italy, where most of the
vineyards have an aspect to the north, it has been found by
experience that there are none that are more prolific.
The winds are also a very important consideration. In the
provinces of Gallia Narbonensis, and in Liguria and part of
Etruria, it is considered a proof of great want of skill to plant
the vine on a site that lies in the teeth of the wind Circius,
27
while, on the other hand, it is a mark of prudence to catch
its breezes in an oblique direction; it is this wind, in fact,
that modifies the heat in those countries, though at the same
time it is usually so violent, as to sweep away the roofs of
the houses.
(3.) There are some persons who employ a method of making
the question of weather dependent upon the nature of the soil;
thus in the case of a vineyard, for instance, in a dry locality,
they give it an eastern or a northern aspect; but where it is
planted on a humid site, it is made to face the south. From
the varieties of the vine also, they borrow various modifications in reference to site; taking care to plant the early vine
in a cold locality, in order that the fruit may ripen before the
frosts come on; while such fruit trees and vines as have an antipathy to dews are exposed to the east, that the sun may carry
off their humidity at the earliest moment. On the other hand,
such as manifest a partiality to dews are planted with a western
or even a northern aspect, to give them an opportunity of enjoying them all the longer. Others, again, borrowing their
notions pretty nearly from Nature, have recommended that
vines and trees should be planted facing the north-east; indeed
Democritus is of opinion, that by so doing the fruit will
be all the more odoriferous.
(4.) We have already spoken, in the Second Book,
28 of the
points of the north-east and other winds, and shall have occasion in the succeeding one to make mention of several more of
the heavenly phænomena. In the mean time, however, we
may observe that it would appear to be a manifest proof of the
salubrity of a north-east site, that the leaves are always the
first to fall in the trees that have an aspect towards the south.
29
A similar reason exists, too, in the maritime districts; in
certain localities the sea breezes are detrimental, though in
most they are nutritious. For some plants, again, it is pleasant
to behold the sea at a distance, while at the same time they
will gain nothing by approaching closer to its saline exhalations. The same, too, is the influence exercised by rivers and
lakes; they will either scorch the vegetation by the fogs they
emit, or else modify by their coolness the excess of heat. We
have already mentioned
30 the plants that thrive in the shade,
and in the cold even; but in all these matters experience will
be found the best of guides.
CHAP. 3.—WHAT SOILS ARE TO BE CONSIDERED THE BEST.
Next after the influences of the heavens, we have to treat of
those of the earth, a task that is in no way more easy than the
previous one. It is but rarely that the same soil is found
suited to trees as well as corn: indeed, the black
31 earth which
prevails in Campania is not everywhere found suited to the vine,
nor yet that which emits light exhalations, or the red
32 soil
that has been so highly praised by many. The cretaceous earth
that is found in the territory of Alba Pompeia, and an argillaceous soil, are preferred to all others for the vine, although,
too, they are remarkably rich, a quality that is generally looked
upon as not suited to that plant. On the other hand, again,
the white sand of the district of Ticinum, the black sand of
many other places, and the red sand as well, even though mixed
with a rich earth, will prove unproductive.
The very signs, also, from which we form our judgment are
often very deceptive; a soil that is adorned with tall and
graceful trees is not always a favourable one, except, of course,
for those trees. What tree, in fact, is there that is taller than
the fir? and yet what other plant could possibly exist in the
same spot? Nor ought we always to look upon verdant pastures as so many proofs of richness of soil; for what is there
that enjoys a greater renown than the pastures of Germany?
and yet they consist of nothing but a very thin layer of turf,
with sand immediately beneath. Nor yet is the soil which
produces herbage
33 of large growth always to be looked upon as
humid; no, by Hercules! no more than a soil is to be looked
upon as unctuous and rich, which adheres to the fingers—a
thing that is proved in the case of the argillaceous earths.
34
The earth when thrown back into the hole from which it has
just been dug will never
35 fill it, so that it is quite impossible
by that method to form any opinion as to its density or thinness. It is the fact, too, that every
36 soil, without exception,
will cover iron with rust. Nor yet can we determine
37 the
heaviness or lightness of soils in relation to any fixed and ascertained weight: for what are we to understand as the
standard weight of earth? A soil, too, that is formed from
the alluvion
38 of rivers is not always to be recommended, for
there are some crops that decay all the sooner in a watery soil;
indeed, those soils even of this description which are highly
esteemed, are never found to be long good for any kind of
vegetation but the willow.
Among other proofs of the goodness of soil, is the comparative
thickness of the stem in corn. In Laborium, a famous champaign country of Campania, the stalk is of such remarkable
thickness, that it may be used even to supply the place of
wood:
39 and yet this very soil, from the difficulty that is everywhere experienced in cultivating it, and the labour required
in working it, may be almost said to give the husbandman
more trouble by its good qualities than it could possibly have
done by reason of any defects. The soil, too, that is generally
known as charcoal earth, appears susceptible of being improved by being planted with a poor meagre vine: and tufa,
40
which is naturally rough and friable, we find recommended
by some authors. Virgil,
41 too, does not condemn for the vine
a soil which produces fern:
42 while a salted earth
43 is thought
to be much better entrusted with the growth of vegetation than
any other, from the fact of its being comparatively safe from
noxious insects breeding there. Declivities, too, are far from
unproductive, if a person only knows how to dig them properly; and it is not all
44 champaign spots that are less accessible to the sun and wind than is necessary for their benefit.
We have already
45 alluded to the fact, that there are certain
vines which find nutriment in hoar frosts and fogs.
In every subject there are certain deep and recondite
secrets, which it is left to the intelligence of each to penetrate.
Do awe not, for instance, find it the fact, that soils which have
long offered opportunities for a sound judgment being formed on
their qualities have become totally altered? In the vicinity
of Larissa, in Thessaly, a lake was drained;
46 and the consequence was, that the district became much colder, and the
olive-trees which had formerly borne fruit now ceased to bear.
When a channel was cut for the Hebrus, near the town of
Ænos, the place was sensible of its nearer approach, in finding
its vines frost-bitten, a thing that had never happened before;
in the vicinity, too, of Philippi, the country having been
drained for cultivation, the nature of the climate became entirely altered. In the territory of Syracuse, a husbandman,
who was a stranger to the place, cleared the soil of all the
stones, and the consequence was, that he lost his crops front
the accumulation of mud; so that at last he was obliged to
carry the stones back again. In Syria again, the plough-
share which they use is narrow, and the furrows are but very
superficial, there being a rock beneath the soil that in summer
scorches up the seeds.
BOOK VII.
MAN, HIS BIRTH, HIS ORGANIZATION, AND THE INVENTION OF THE ARTS.
