BOOK XIII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF EXOTIC TREES, AND AN
ACCOUNT OF UNGUENTS.
CHAP. 1. (1.)—UNGUENTS—AT WHAT PERIOD THEY WERE FIRST
INTRODUCED.
THUS far we have been speaking of the trees which are
valuable for the odours they produce, and each of which is a
subject for our wonder in itself. Luxury, however, has
thought fit to mingle all of these, and to make a single odour
of the whole; hence it is that unguents have been invented.
1
Who was the first to make unguents is a fact not recorded.
In the times of the Trojan war
2 they did not exist, nor did
they use incense when sacrificing to the gods; indeed, people
knew of no other smell, or rather stench,
3 I may say, than that
of the cedar and the citrus,
4 shrubs of their own growth, as it
arose in volumes of smoke from the sacrifices; still, however,
even then, the extract of roses was known, for we find it mentioned as conferring additional value on olive-oil.
We ought, by good rights, to ascribe the first use of unguents to the Persians, for they quite soak themselves in it,
and so, by an adventitious recommendation, counteract the
bad odours which are produced by dirt. The first instance of
the use of unguents that I have been able to meet with is that of
the chest
5 of perfumes which fell into the hands of Alexander,
with the rest of the property of King Darius, at the taking of his
camp.
6 Since those times this luxury has been adopted by
our own countrymen as well, among the most prized and, indeed, the most elegant of all the enjoyments of life, and has
begun even to be admitted in the list of honours paid to the
dead; for which reason we shall have to enlarge further on
that subject. Those perfumes which are not the produce of
shrubs
7 will only be mentioned for the present by name: the
nature of them will, however, be stated in their appropriate
places.
CHAP. 2.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF UNGUENTS—TWELVE PRIN-
CIPAL COMPOSITIONS.
The names of unguents are due, some of them, to the original place of their composition, others, again, to the extracts
which form their bases, others to the trees from which they
are derived, and others to the peculiar circumstance under
which they were first made: and it is as well, first of all, to
know that in this respect the fashion has often changed, and
that the high repute of peculiar kinds has been but transitory.
In ancient times, the perfumes the most esteemed of all were
those of the island of Delos,
8 and at a later period those of
Mendes.
9 This degree of esteem is founded, not only on the
mode of mixing them and the relative proportions, but according to the degree of favour or disfavour in which the various
places which produce the ingredients are held, and the comparative excellence or degeneracy of the ingredients themselves.
The perfume of iris,
10 from Corinth, was long held in the
highest esteem, till that of Cyzicus came into fashion. It was
the same, too, with the perfume of roses,
11 from Phaselis,
12 the
repute of which was afterwards eclipsed by those of Neapolis,
Capua, and Præneste. Oil of saffron,
13 from Soli in Cilicia,
was for a long time held in repute beyond any other, and then
that from Rhodes; after which perfume of œnanthe,
14 from Cyprus, came into fashion, and then that of Egypt was preferred.
At a later period that of Adramytteum came into vogue, and
then was supplanted by unguent of marjoram,
15 from Cos,
which in its turn was superseded by quince blossom
16 unguent
from the same place. As to perfume of cyprus,
17 that from
the island of Cyprus was at first preferred, and then that of
Egypt; when all on a sudden the unguents of Mendes and
metopium
18 rose into esteem. In later times Phœnicia eclipsed
Egypt in the manufacture of these last two, but left to that
country the repute of producing the best unguent of cyprus.
Athens has perseveringly maintained the repute of her
panathenaicon.
19 There was formerly a famous unguent,
known as "pardalium,"
20 and made at Tarsus; at the present
day its very composition and the mode of mixing it are quite
unknown there: they have left off, too, making unguent of
narcissus
21 from the flowers of that plant.
There are two elements which enter into the composition of
unguents, the juices and the solid parts. The former generally
consist of various kinds of oils, the latter of odoriferous substances. These last are known as hedysmata, while the oils
are called stymmata.
22 There is a third element, which occu-
pies a place between the two, but has been much neglected,
the colouring matter, namely. To produce a colour, however,
cinnabar
23 and alkanet
24 are often employed. If salt
25 is
sprinkled in the oil, it will aid it in retaining its properties;
but if alkanet has been employed, salt is never used. Resin
and gum are added to fix the odour in the solid perfumes;
indeed it is apt to die away and disappear with the greatest
rapidity if these substances are not employed.
The unguent which is the most readily prepared of all,
and indeed, in all probability, the very first that was ever
made, is that composed of bryon
26 and oil of balanus,
27 substances of which we have made mention already. In later
times the Mendesian unguent was invented, a more complicated mixture, as resin and myrrh were added to oil of balanus, and at the present day they even add metopion
28 as
well, an Egyptian oil extracted from bitter almonds; to which
have been added omphacium,
29 cardamum,
30 sweet rush,
31 honey,
32
wine, myrrh, seed of balsamum,
33 galbanum,
34 and resin of
terebinth,
35 as so many ingredients. Among the most common
unguents at the present day, and for that reason supposed to
be the most ancient, is that composed of oil of myrtle,
36 calamus, cypress,
37 cyprus, mastich,
38 and pomegranate-rind.
39 I am
of opinion, however, that the unguents which have been the
most universally adopted, are those which are compounded of
the rose, a flower that grows everywhere; and hence for
a long time the composition of oil of roses was of the most
simple nature, though more recently there have been added
omphacium, rose blossoms, cinnabar, calamus, honey, sweet-rush, flour of salt or else alkanet,
40 and wine. The same
is the case, too, with oil of saffron, to which have been lately
addedcinnabar, alkanet, and wine; and with oil of sampsuchum,
41
with which omphacium and calamus have been compounded.
The best comes from Cyprus and Mitylene, where sampsuchum
abounds in large quantities.
The commoner kinds of oil, too, are mixed with those of
myrrh and laurel, to which are added sampsuchum, lilies,
fenugreek, myrrh, cassia,
42 nard,
43 sweet-rush, and cinnamon.
44
There is an oil, too, made of the common quince and the
sparrow quince, called melinum, as we shall have occasion to
mention hereafter;
45 it is used as an ingredient in unguents,
mixed with omphacium, oil of cyprus, oil of sesamum,
46 balsamum,
47 sweet-rush, cassia, and abrotonum.
48 Susinum
49 is
the most fluid of them all: it is made of lilies, oil of balanus,
calamus, honey, cinnamon, saffron,
50 and myrrh; while the
unguent of cyprus
51 is compounded of cyprus, omphacium
and cardamum, calamus, aspalathus,
52 and abrotonum. There
are some persons who, when making unguent of cyprus, employ myrrh also, and panax:
53 the best is that made at Sidon,
and the next best that of Egypt: care must be taken not to
add oil of sesamum: it will keep as long as four years, and its
odour is strengthened by the addition of cinnamon. Telinum
54
is made of fresh olive-oil, cypirus,
55 calamus, melilote,
56 fenugreek, honey, marum,
57 and sweet marjoram. This last was
the perfume most in vogue in the time of the Comic poet
Menander: a considerable time after that known as "megalium" took its place, being so called as holding the very
highest rank;
58 it was composed of oil of balanus, balsamum,
calamus, sweet-rush, xylobalsamum,
59 cassia, and resin. One
peculiar property of this unguent is, that it requires to be
constantly stirred while boiling, until it has lost all smell:
when it becomes cold, it recovers its odour.
60
There are some single essences also which, individually,
afford unguents of very high character: the first rank is due
to malobathrum,
61 and the next to the iris of Illyricum and
the sweet marjoram of Cyzicus, both of them herbs. There
are perfumers who sometimes add some few other ingredients
to these: those who use the most, employ for the purpose
honey, flour of salt, omphacium, leaves of agnus,
62 and panax,
all of them foreign ingredients.
63 The price of unguent
64 of
cinnamon is quite enormous; to cinnamon there is added oil
of balanus, xylobalsamum, calamus, sweet-rush, seeds of
balsamum, myrrh, and perfumed honey: it is the thickest in
consistency of all the unguents; the price at which it sells
ranges from thirty-five to three hundred denarii per pound.
Unguent of nard,
65 or foliatum, is composed of omphacium or
else oil of balanus, sweet-rush, costus,
66 nard, amomum,
67
myrrh, and balsamum.
While speaking on this subject, it will be as well to bear in
mind that there are nine different kinds of plants of a similar
kind, of which we have already made mention
68 as being employed for the purpose of imitating Indian nard; so abundant are the materials that are afforded for adulteration. All
these perfumes are rendered still more pungent by the addition of costus and amomum, which have a particularly powerful effect on the olfactory organs; while myrrh gives them
greater consistency and additional sweetness, and saffron makes
them better adapted for medicinal purposes. They are most
pungent, however, when mixed with amomum alone, which
will often produce head-ache even. There are some persons who
content themselves with sprinkling the more precious ingredients upon the others after boiling them down, for the purpose of economy; but the strength of the unguent is not so
great as when the ingredients have been boiled together.
Myrrh used by itself, and without the mixture of oil, forms
an unguent, but it is stacte
69 only that must be used, for otherwise it will be productive of too great bitterness. Unguent of
cyprus turns other unguents green, while lily unguent
70 makes
them more unctuous: the unguent of Mendes turns them
black, rose unguent makes them white, and that of myrrh
of a pallid hue.
Such are the particulars of the ancient inventions, and the
various falsifications of the shops in later times; we will now
pass on to make mention of what is the very height of refinement in these articles of luxury, indeed, I may say, the beau
ideal
71 of them all.
72
(2.) This is what is called the "regal" unguent, from the
fact that it is composed in these proportions for the kings of
the Parthians. It consists of myrobalanus,
73 costus, amomum,
cinnamon, comacum,
74 cardamum, spikenard, marum, myrrh,
cassia, storax,
75 ladanum,
76 opobalsamum, Syrian calamus
77 and
Syrian sweet-rush,
78 œnanthe, malobathrum, serichatum,
79
cyprus, aspralathus, panax, saffron, cypirus, sweet marjoram,
lotus,
80 honey, and wine. Not one of the ingredients in this
compound is produced either in Italy, that conqueror of the
world, or, indeed, in all Europe, with the exception of the
iris, which grows in Illyricum, and the nard, which is to be
found in Gaul: as to the wine, the rose, the leaves of myrtle, and the olive-oil, they are possessed by pretty nearly all
countries in common.
CHAP. 3.—DIAPASMA, MAGMA; THE MODE OF TESTING UNGUENTS.
Those unguents which are known by the name of "dia-
pasma,"
81 are composed of dried perfumes. The lees
82 of unguents are known by the name of "magma.
83 In all these
preparations the most powerful perfume is the one that is
added the last of all. Unguents keep best in boxes of alabaster,
84 and perfumes
85 when mixed with oil, which conduces
all the more to their durability the thicker it is, such as the
oil of almonds, for instance. Unguents, too, improve with age;
but the sun is apt to spoil them, for which reason they are
usually stowed away in a shady place in vessels of lead.
When their goodness is being tested, they are placed on the
back of the hand, lest the heat of the palm, which is more
fleshy, should have a bad effect upon them.
CHAP. 4. (3.)—THE EXCESSES TO WHICH LUXURY HAS RUN IN
UNGUENTS.
These perfumes form the objects of a luxury which may be
looked upon as being the most superfluous of any, for pearls
and jewels, after all, do pass to a man's representative,
86 and
garments have some durability; but unguents lose their
odour in an instant, and die away the very hour they are
used. The very highest recommendation of them is, that
when a female passes by, the odour which proceeds from her
may possibly attract the attention of those even who till then
are intent upon something else. In price they exceed so large
a sum even as four hundred denarii per pound: so vast is the
amount that is paid for a luxury made not for our own enjoyment, but for that of others; for the person who carries the
perfume about him is not the one, after all, that smells it.
And yet, even here, there are some points of difference that
deserve to be remarked. We read in the works of Cicero,
87
that those unguents which smell of the earth are preferable to
those which smell of saffron; being a proof, that even in a
matter which most strikingly bespeaks our state of extreme
corruptness, it is thought as well to temper the vice by a little
show of austerity.
88 There are some persons too who look more
particularly for consistency
89 in their unguents, to which they
accordingly give the name of "spissum;
90 thus showing that
they love not only to be sprinkled, but even to be plastered over,
with unguents. We have known the very soles
91 even of the
feet to be sprinkled with perfumes; a refinement which was
taught, it is said, by M. Otho
92 to the Emperor Nero. How,
I should like to know, could a perfume be at all perceptible,
or, indeed, productive of any kind of pleasure, when placed
on that part of the body? We have heard also of a private
person giving orders for the walls of the bath-room to be
sprinkled with unguents, while the Emperor Caius
93 had the
same thing done to his sitting-bath:
94 that this, too, might not
be looked upon as the peculiar privilege of a prince, it was
afterwards done by one of the slaves that belonged to Nero.
But the most wonderful thing of all is, that this kind of
luxurious gratification should have made its way into the camp
even: at all events, the eagles and the standards, dusty as
they are, and bristling with their sharpened points, are
anointed on festive
95 days. I only wish it could, by any possibility, be stated who it was that first taught us this practice.
It was, no doubt, under the corrupting influence of such temptations as these, that our eagles achieved the conquest
96 of the
world: thus do we seek to obtain their patronage and sanction for our vices, and make them our precedent for using
unguents even beneath the casque.
97
CHAP. 5.—WHEN UNGUENTS WERE FIRST USED BY THE ROMANS.
I cannot exactly say at what period the use of unguents
first found its way to Rome. It is a well-known fact, that
when King Antiochus and Asia
98 were subdued, an edict was
published in the year of the City 565, in the censorship of P.
Licinius Crassus and L. Julius Cæsar, forbidding any one to
sell exotics;
99 for by that name unguents were then called.
But, in the name of Hercules! at the present day, there are
some persons who even go so far as to put them in their drink,
and the bitterness produced thereby is prized to a high degree,
in order that by their lavishness on these odours they may
thus gratify the senses of two parts
100 of the body at the same
moment.
101 It is a well-known historical fact, that L. Plotius,
102
the brother of L. Plancus, who was twice consul and censor,
after being proscribed by the Triumvirs, was betrayed in his
place of concealment at Salernum by the smell of his unguents, a disgrace which more than outweighed all the guilt
103
attending his proscription. For who is there that can be of
opinion that such men as this do not richly deserve to come to
a violent end?
CHAP. 6.—THE PALM-TREE.
In other respects, Egypt is the country that is the best suited
of all for the production of unguents; and next to it, Campania,
104 from its abundance of roses.
(4.) Judæa, too, is greatly renowned for its perfumes, and
even still more so for its palm-trees,
105 the nature of which I
shall take this opportunity of enlarging upon. There are some
found in Europe also. They are not uncommon in Italy, but
are quite barren there.
106 The palms on the coast of Spain bear
fruit, but it is sour.
107 The fruit of those of Africa is sweet,
but quickly becomes vapid and loses its flavour; which, however is not the case with the fruit of those that grow in the
East.
108 From these trees a wine is made, and bread by some
nations,
109 and they afford an aliment for numerous quadrupeds.
It will be with very fair reason then, that we shall confine our
description to the palm-tree of foreign countries. There are
none in Italy that grow spontaneously,
110 nor, in fact, in any
other part of the world, with the exception of the warm countries: indeed, it is only in the very hottest climates that this
tree will bear fruit.
CHAP. 7.—THE NATURE OF THE PALM-TREE.
The palm-tree grows in a light and sandy soil, and for the
most part of a nitrous quality. It loves the vicinity of flowing
water; and as it is its nature to imbibe the whole of the year,
there are some who are of opinion that in a year of drought
it will receive injury from being manured even, if the manure
is not first mixed with running water: this, at least, is the idea
entertained by some of the Assyrians.
The varieties of the palm are numerous. First of all, there
are those which do not exceed the size of a shrub; they are
mostly barren, though sometimes they are known to produce
fruit; the branches are short, and the tree is well covered with
leaves all round. In many places this tree is used as a kind
of rough-cast,
111 as it were, to protect the walls of houses
against damp. The palms of greater height form whole
forests, the trunk of the tree being protected all round by
pointed leaves, which are arranged in the form of a comb;
these, it must be understood, are wild palms, though sometimes,
by some wayward fancy or other, they are known to make
their appearance among the cultivated varieties. The other
kinds are tall, round, and tapering; and being furnished with
dense and projecting knobs or circles in the bark, arranged in
regular gradation, they are found easy of ascent by the people
in the East; in order to do which, the climber fastens a loop
of osier round his body and the trunk, and by this contrivance
ascends the tree with astonishing
112 rapidity. All the foliage is
at the summit, and the fruit as well; this last being situate,
not among the leaves, as is the case with other trees, but
hanging in clusters from shoots of its own among the
branches, and partaking of the nature both of the grape and
the apple. The leaves terminate in a sharp edge, like that of
a knife, while the sides are deeply indented-a peculiarity
which first gave the idea of a troop of soldiers presenting face
on two sides at once; at the present day they are split asunder
113
to form ropes and wythes for fastening, as well as light umbrellas
114 for covering the head.
The more diligent
115 enquirers into the operations of Nature
state that all trees, or rather all plants, and other productions
of the earth, belong to either one sex or the other; a fact
which it may be sufficient to notice on the present occasion,
and one which manifests itself in no tree more than in the
palm. The male tree blossoms at the shoots; the female buds
without blossoming, the bud being very similar to an ear of
corn. In both trees the flesh of the fruit shows first, and
after that the woody part inside of it, or, in other words, the
seed: and that this is really the case, is proved by the fact, that
we often find small fruit on the same shoot without any seed in
it at all. This seed is of an oblong shape, and not rounded
like the olive-stone. It is also divided down the back by a
deep indentation, and in most specimens of this fruit there
is exactly in the middle a sort of navel, as it were, from which
the root of the tree first takes its growth.
116 In planting this
seed it is laid on its anterior surface, two being placed side
by side, while as many more are placed above; for when
planted singly, the tree that springs up is but weak and
sickly, whereas the four seeds all unite and form one strong
tree. The seed is divided from the flesh of the fruit by several
coats of a whitish colour, some of which are attached to the
body of it; it lies but loosely in the inside of the fruit, adhering only to the summit by a single thread.
117
The flesh of this fruit takes a year to ripen, though in some
places, Cyprus
118 for instance, even if it should not reach maturity, it is very agreeable, for the sweetness of its flavour:
the leaf of the tree too, in that island, is broader than elsewhere, and the fruit rounder than usual: the body of the fruit
however, is never eaten, but is always spit
119 out again, after
the juice has been extracted. In Arabia, the palm fruit is
said to have a sickly sweet taste, although Juba says that he
prefers the date found among the Arabian Scenitæ,
120 and to
which they give the name of dablan," before those of any
other country for flavour. In addition to the above particulars, it is asserted that in a forest of natural growth the
female
121 trees will become barren if they are deprived of the
males, and that many female trees may be seen surrounding a
single male with downcast heads and a foliage that seems to be
bowing caressingly towards it; while the male tree, on the
other hand, with leaves all bristling and erect, by its exhalations, and even the very sight of it and the dust
122 from
off it, fecundates the others: if the male tree, too, should
happen to be cut down, the female trees, thus reduced to a state
of widowhood, will at once become barren and unproductive.
So well, indeed, is this sexual union between them understood,
that it has been imagined even that fecundation may be ensured through the agency of man, by means of the blossoms
and the down
123 gathered from off the male trees, and, indeed,
sometimes by only sprinkling the dust from off them on the
female trees.
CHAP. 8.—HOW THE PALM-TREE IS PLANTED.
Palm-trees are also propagated by planting;
124 the trunk is
first divided with certain fissures two cubits in length which
communicate with the pith of the tree, and is then buried in
the earth. A slip also torn away from the root will produce
a sucker with vitality, and the same may be obtained from the
more tender among the branches. In Assyria, the tree itself
is sometimes laid level, and then covered over in a moist soil;
upon which it will throw out roots all over, but it will grow
only to be a number of shrubs, and never a tree: hence it is
that they plant nurseries, and transplant the young trees when
a year old, and again when two years old, as they thrive all
the better for being transplanted; this is done in the spring
season in other countries, but in Assyria about the rising of the
Dog-star. In those parts they do not touch the young trees
with the knife, but merely tie up the foliage that they may
shoot upwards, and so attain considerable height. When
they are strong they prune them, in order to increase their
thickness, but in so doing leave the branches for about half a
foot; indeed, if they were cut off at any other place, the operation would kill the parent tree. We have already
125 mentioned that they thrive particularly well in a saltish soil;
hence, when the soil is not of that nature, it is the custom to
scatter salt, not exactly about the roots, but at a little distance
off. There are palm-trees in Syria and in Egypt which divide
into two trunks, and some in Crete into three and as many as
five even.
126 Some of these trees bear immediately at the end of
three years, and in Cyprus, Syria, and Egypt, when they are
four years old; others again at the end of five years: at which
period the tree is about the height of a man. So long as the
tree is quite young the fruit has no seed within, from which
circumstance it has received the nickname of the "eunuch."
127
CHAP. 9.—THE DIFFERENT VARIETIES OF PALM-TREES, AND THEIR
CHARACTERISTICS.
There are numerous varieties of the palm-tree. In Assyria,
and throughout the whole of Persis, the barren kinds are made
use of for carpenters' work, and the various appliances of
luxury. There are whole forests also of palm-trees adapted
for cutting,
128 and which, after they are cut, shoot again from
the root; the pith of them towards the top, which is usually
called the brain
129 of the tree, is sweet to the taste, and the
tree will live even after it has been extracted, which is the case
with no other kind. The name of this tree is "chammereps;"
130
it has a broader and softer leaf than the others, which is extremely useful for various kinds of wickerwork;
131 these trees are
very numerous in Crete, and even more so in Sicily. The
wood of the palm-tree, when ignited, burns both brightly and
slowly.
132 In some of those that bear fruit,
133 the seed of the fruit
is shorter than in others, while in some, again, it is longer; in
some it is softer than in others, and in some harder; in some
it is osseous and crescent-shaped; polished with a tooth, superstition employs the stone as an antidote against charms and fascination. This stone is enclosed in several coats, more or less
in number; sometimes they are of a thick texture, and sometimes very thin.
Hence it is that we find nine and forty different kinds of
palm-trees, if any one will be at the trouble of enumerating all
their various barbarous names, and the different wines that are
extracted from them. The most famous of all, are those
which, for the sake of distinction, have received the name of
"royal" palms, because they were preserved solely by the
kings of Persia; these used to grow nowhere but at Babylon,
and there only in the garden of Bagöus,
134 that being the
Persian for an eunuch, several of whom have even reigned
over that country! This garden was always carefully retained
within
135 the precincts of the royal court.
In the southern parts of the world, the dates known as
"syagri,
136 hold the highest rank, and next after them those
that are called "margarides." These last are short, white,
and round, and bear a stronger resemblance to grapes than to
dates; for which reason it is that they have received their
name, in consequence of their close resemblance to "margaritæ," or pearls. It is said that there is only one tree that
bears them, and that in the locality known as Chora.
137 The
same is the case also with the tree that bears the syagri. We
have heard a wonderful story too, relative to this last tree, to
the effect that it dies and comes to life again in a similar
manner to the phoenix, which, it is generally thought, has
borrowed its name from the palm-tree, in consequence of this
peculiarity; at the moment that I am writing this, that tree
is still bearing fruit. As for the fruit itself, it is large, hard,
and of a rough appearance, and differing in taste from all other
kinds, having a sort of wild flavour peculiar to itself, and
not unlike that of the flesh of the wild boar; it is evidently
this circumstance from which it has derived its name of
"syagrus."
In the fourth rank are the dates called "sandalides," from
their resemblance to a sandal in shape. It is stated, that on
the confines of Æthiopia there are but five of these trees at
the most, no less remarkable for the singular lusciousness of
their fruit, than for their extreme rarity. Next to these, the
dates known as "caryotæ"
138 are the most esteemed, affording
not only plenty of nutriment, but a great abundance of juice;
it is from these that the principal wines
139 are made in the
East; these wines are apt to affect the head, a circumstance
from which the fruit derives its name. But if these trees are
remarkable for their abundance and fruitfulness, it is in Judæa
that they enjoy the greatest repute; not, indeed, throughout
the whole of that territory, but more particularly at Hiericus,
140
although those that grow at Archelais, Phaselis, and Livias,
vallies in the same territory, are highly esteemed. The more
remarkable quality of these is a rich, unctuous juice; they are
of a milky consistency, and have a sort of vinous flavour, with
a remarkable sweetness, like that of honey. The Nicolaän
141
dates are of a similar kind, but somewhat drier; they are
of remarkable size, so much so, indeed, that four of them,
placed end to end, will make a cubit in length. A less fine
kind, but of sister quality to the caryotæ for flavour, are the
"adelphides,"
142 hence so called; these come next to them in
sweetness, but still are by no means their equals. A third
kind, again, are the patetæ, which abound in juice to excess,
so much so, indeed, that the fruit bursts, in its excess of liquor,
even upon the parent tree, and presents all the appearance of
having been trodden
143 under foot.
There are numerous kinds of dates also, of a drier nature,
which are long and slender, and sometimes of a curved shape.
Those of this sort which we consecrate to the worship of the
gods are called "chydæi
144 by the Jews, a nation remarkable
for the contempt which they manifest of the divinities. Those
found all over Thebais and Arabia are dry and small, with a
shrivelled body: being parched up and scorched by the constant heat, they are covered with what more nearly resembles
a shell
145 than a skin. In Æthiopia the date is quite brittle
even, so great is the driness of the climate; hence the people
are able to knead it into a kind of bread, just like so much
flour.
146 It grows upon a shrub, with branches a cubit in
length: it has a broad leaf, and the fruit is round, and larger
than an apple. The name of this date is "coïx."
147 It comes
to maturity in three years, and there is always fruit to be
found upon the shrub, in various stages of maturity. The
date of Thebais is at once packed in casks, with all its natural heat and freshness; for without this precaution, it quickly
becomes vapid; it is of a poor, sickly taste, too, if it is not
exposed, before it is eaten, to the heat of an oven.
The other kinds of dates appear to be of an ordinary nature,
and are generally known as "tragemata;"
148 but in some parts of
Phœnicia and Cilicia, they are commonly called "balani," a
name which has been also borrowed by us. There are numerous kinds of them, which differ from one another in being
round or oblong; as also in colour, for some of them are black,
and others red-indeed it is said that they present no fewer
varieties of colour than the fig: the white ones, however, are
the most esteemed. They differ also in size, according to the
number which it requires to make a cubit in length; some,
indeed, are no larger than a bean. Those are the best adapted
for keeping which are produced in salt and sandy soils, Sudca,
and Cyrenaica in Africa, for instance: those, however, of Egypt,
Cyprus, Syria, and Seleucia in Assyria, will not keep: hence
it is that they are much used for fattening swine and other
animals. It is a sign that the fruit is either spoilt or old,
when the white protuberance disappears, by which it has adhered to the cluster. Some of the soldiers of Alexander's army
were choked by eating green dates;
149 and a similar effect is
produced in the country of the Gedrosi, by the natural quality
of the fruit; while in other places, again, the same results arise
from eating them to excess. Indeed, when in a fresh state, they
are so remarkably luscious, that there would be no end to
eating them, were it not for fear of the dangerous consequences
that would be sure to ensue.
CHAP. 10. (5.)—THE TREES OF SYRIA: THE PISTACIA, THE COT-
TANA, THE DAMASCENA, AND THE MYXA.
In addition to the palm, Syria has several trees that are pe-
culiar to itself. Among the nut-trees there is the pistacia,
150
well known among us. It is said that, taken either in food or
drink, the kernel of this nut is a specific against the bite of
serpents. Among figs, too, there are those known as "ca-
ricæ,"
151 together with some smaller ones of a similar kind,
the name of which is "cottana." There is a plum, too, which
grows upon Mount Damascus,
152 as also that known as the
"myxa;"
153 these last two are, however, now naturalized in
Italy. In Egypt, too, they make a kind of wine from the myxa.
CHAP. 11.—THE CEDAR. TREES WHICH HAVE ON THEM THE FRUIT
OF THREE YEARS AT ONCE.
Phœnicia, too, produces a small cedar, which bears a strong
resemblance to the juniper.
154 Of this tree there are two
varieties; the one found in Lycia, the other in Phœnicia.
155 The
difference is in the leaf: the one in which it is hard, sharp,
and prickly, being known as the oxycedros,
156 a branchy tree
and rugged with knots. The other kind is more esteemed for
its powerful odour. The small cedar produces a fruit the size
of a grain of myrrh, and of a sweetish taste. There are two
kinds of the larger cedar
157 also; the one that blossoms bears
no fruit, while, on the other hand, the one that bears fruit has
no blossom, and the fruit, as it falls, is being continually replaced
by fresh. The seed of this tree is similar to that of the cypress. Some persons give this tree the name of "cedrelates."
The resin produced from it is very highly praised, and the
wood of it lasts for ever, for which reason it is that they have
long been in the habit of using it for making the statues of the
gods. In a temple at Rome there is a statue of Apollo Sosianus
158 in cedar, originally brought from Seleucia. There is a
tree similar to the cedar, found also in Arcadia; and there is
a shrub that grows in Phrygia, known as the "cedrus."
CHAP. 12. (6.)—THE TEREBINTH.159
Syria, too, produces the terebinth, the male tree of which
bears no fruit, and the female consists of two different varieties;
160 one of these bears a red fruit, the size of a lentil,
while the other is pale, and ripens at the same period as
the grape. This fruit is not larger than a bean, is of a very
agreeable smell, and sticky and resinous to the touch. About
Ida in Troas, and in Macedonia, this tree is short and shrubby,
but at Damascus, in Syria, it is found of very considerable size.
Its wood is remarkably flexible, and continues sound to a very
advanced age: it is black and shining. The blossoms appear
in clusters, like those of the olive-tree, but are of a red colour;
the leaves are dense, and closely packed. It produces follicules, too, from which issue certain insects like gnats, as also a
kind of resinous liquid
161 which oozes from the bark.
CHAP. 13.—THE SUMACH-TREE.
The male sumach-tree
162 of Syria is productive, but the
female is barren. The leaf resembles that of the elm, though
it is a little longer, and has a downy surface. The footstalks
of the leaves lie always alternately in opposite directions, and
the branches are short and slender. This tree is used in the
preparation of white skins.
163 The seed, which strongly re-
sembles a lentil in appearance, turns red with the grape; it
is known by the name of "ros," and forms a necessary in-
gredient in various medicaments."
164
CHAP. 14. (7.)—THE TREES OF EGYPT. THE FIG-TREE OF
ALEXANDRIA.
Egypt, too, has many trees which are not to be found elsewhere, and the kind of fig more particularly, which fur this
reason has been called the Egypitian fig.
165 In leaf this tree
resembles the mulberry-tree, as also in size and general appearance. It bears fruit, not upon branches, but upon the trunk
itself: the fig is remarkable for its extreme sweetness, and
has no seeds
166 in it. This tree is also remarkable for its fruitfulness, which, however, can only be ensured by making incisions
167 in the fruit with hooks of iron, for otherwise it will
not come to maturity. But when this has been done, it may
he gathered within fur days, immediately upon which another
shoots up in its place. Hence it is that in the year it produces
seven abundant crops, and throughout all the summer there is
an abundance of milky juice in the fruit. Even if the incisions are not made, the fruit will shoot afresh four times
during the summer, the new fruit supplanting the old, and
forcing it off before it has ripened. The wood, which is of a
very peculiar nature, is reckoned among the most useful
known. When cut down it is immediately plunged into
standing water, such being the means employed for drying
168 it.
At first it sinks to the bottom, after which it begins to float,
and in a certain length of time the additional moisture sucks
it dry, which has the effect of penetrating and soaking all
169
other kinds of wood. It is a sign that it is fit for use
170 when
it begins to float.
CHAP. 15.—THE FIG-TREE OF CYPRUS.
The fig-tree that grows in Crete, and is known there as the
Cyprian fig,
171 bears some resemblance to the preceding one; for
it bears fruit upon the trunk of the tree, and upon the branches
as well, when they have attained a certain degree of thickness.
This tree, however, sends forth buds without any leaves,
172 but
similar in appearance to a root. The trunk of the tree is
similar to that of the poplar, and the leaves to those of the elm.
It produces four crops in the year, and germinates the same
number of times, but its green
173 fruit will not ripen unless an
incision is made in it to let out the milky juice. The sweetness of the fruit and the appearance of the inside are in all
respects similar to those of the fig, and in size it is about as
large as a sorb-apple.
CHAP. 16. (8.)—THE CAROB-TREE.
Similar to this is the carob-tree, by the Ionians known as
the "ceraunia,"
174 which in a similar manner bears fruit front
the trunk, this fruit being known by the name of "siliqua,"
or "pod." For this reason, committing a manifest error,
some persons
175 have called it the Egyptian fig; it being the
fact that this tree does not grow in Egypt, but in Syria and
Ionia, in the vicinity, too, of Cnidos, and in the island of
Rhodes. It is always covered with leaves, and bears a white
flower with a very powerful odour. It sends forth shoots at
the lower part, and is consequently quite yellow on the surface, as the young suckers deprive the trunk of the requisite
moisture. When the fruit of the preceding year is gathered,
about the rising of the Dog-star, fresh fruit immediately makes
its appearance; after which the tree blossoms while the constellation of Arcturus
176 is above the horizon, and the winter
imparts nourishment to the fruit.
CHAP. 17. (9.)—THE PERSIAN TREE. IN WHAT TREES THE FRUITS
GERMINATE THE ONE BELOW THE OTHER.
Egypt, too, produces another tree of a peculiar description,
the Persian
177 tree, similar in appearance to the pear-tree, but
retaining its leaves during the winter. This tree produces
without intermission, for if the fruit is pulled to-day, fresh
fruit will make its appearance to-morrow: the time for ripening is while the Etesian
178 winds prevail. The fruit of this
tree is more oblong than a pear, but is enclosed in a shell and
a rind of a grassy colour, like the almond; but what is found
within, instead of being a nut as in the almond, is a plum,
differing from the almond
179 in being shorter and quite soft. This
fruit, although particularly inviting for its luscious sweetness,
is productive of no injurious effects. The wood, for its goodness, solidity, and blackness, is in no respect inferior to that
of the lotus: people have been in the habit of making statues
of it. The wood of the tree which we have mentioned as
the "balanus,"
180 although very durable, is not so highly esteemed as this, as it is knotted and twisted in the greater
part: hence it is only employed for the purposes of shipbuilding.
CHAP. 18.—THE CUCUS.
On the other hand, the wood of the cucus
181 is held in very
high esteem. It is similar in nature to the palm, as its leaves
are similarly used for the purposes of texture: it differs from
it, however, in spreading out its arms in large branches. The
fruit, which is of a size large enough to fill the hand, is of a
tawny colour, and recommends itself by its juice, which is a
mixture of sweet and rough. The seed in the inside is large
and of remarkable hardness, and turners use it for making
curtain rings.
182 The kernel is sweet, while fresh; but when
dried it becomes hard to a most remarkable degree, so much
so, that it can only be eaten after being soaked in water for
several days. The wood is beautifully mottled with circling
veins,
183 for which reason it is particularly esteemed among the
Persians.
CHAP. 19.—THE EGYPTIAN THORN.
No less esteemed, too, in the same country, is a certain kind
of thorn,
184 though only the black variety, its wood being imperishable, in water even, a quality which renders it particularly valuable for making the sides of ships: on the other hand,
the white kinds will rot very rapidly. It has sharp, prickly
thorns on the leaves even, and bears its seeds in pods; they
are employed for the same purposes as galls in the preparation
of leather. The flower, too, has a pretty effect when made
into garlands, and is extremely useful in medicinal preparations.
A gum, also, distils from this tree; but the principal merit
that it possesses is, that when it is cut down, it will grow
again within three years. It grows in the vicinity of Thebes,
where we also find the quercus, the Persian tree, and the olive:
the spot that produces it is a piece of woodland, distant three
hundred stadia from the Nile, and watered by springs of its
own.
(10.) Here we find, too, the Egyptian
185 plum-tree, not much
unlike the thorn last mentioned, with a fruit similar to the
medlar, and which ripens in the winter. This tree never loses
its leaves. The seed in the fruit is of considerable size, but
the flesh of it, by reason of its quality, and the great abundance in which it grows, affords quite a harvest to the inhabitants of those parts; after cleaning it, they subject it to pressure,
and then make it up into cakes for keeping. There was formerly
186 a woodland district in the vicinity of Memphis, with
trees of such enormous size, that three men could not span
one with their arms: one of these trees is remarkable, not for
its fruit, or any particular use that it is, but for the singular
phænomenon that it presents. In appearance it strongly resembles a thorn,
187 and it has leaves which have all the appearance of wings, and which fall immediately the branch is
touched by any one, and then immediately shoot again.
CHAP. 20. (11.)—NINE KINDS OF GUM. THE SARCOCOLLA.
It is universally agreed, that the best gum is that produced
from the Egyptian thorn;
188 it is of variegated appearance, of
azure colour, clean, free from all admixture of bark, and
adheres to the teeth; the price at which it sells is three
denarii per pound. That produced from the bitter almond-
tree and the cherry
189 is of an inferior kind, and that which is
gathered from the plum-tree is the worst of all. The vine,
too, produces a gum,
190 which is of the greatest utility in healing
the sores of children; while that which is sometimes found on
the olive-tree
191 is used for the tooth-ache. Gum is also found
on the elm
192 upon Mount Corycus in Cilicia, and upon the
juniper,
193 but it is good for nothing; indeed, the gum of the
elm found there is apt to breed gnats. From the sarcocolla
194
also—such is the name of a certain tree—a gum exudes that is
remarkably useful to painters
195 and medical men; it is similar
to incense dust in appearance, and for those purposes the white
kind is preferable to the red. The price of it is the same as
that mentioned above.
196
CHAP. 21.—THE PAPYRUS: THE USE OF PAPER; WHEN IT WAS
FIRST INVENTED.
We have not as yet taken any notice of the marsh plants,
nor yet of the shrubs that grow upon the banks of rivers:
before quitting Egypt, however, we must make some mention
of the nature of the papyrus, seeing that all the usages of
civilized life depend in such a remarkable degree upon the
employment of paper—at all events, the remembrance of past
events. M. Varro informs us that paper owes its discovery to
the victorious
197 career of Alexander the Great, at the time
when Alexandria in Egypt was founded by him; before which
period paper had not been used, the leaves of the palm having
been employed for writing at an early period, and after that
the bark of certain trees. In succeeding ages, public documents were inscribed on sheets of lead, while private memoranda were impressed upon linen cloths, or else engraved on
tablets of wax; indeed, we find it stated in Homer,
198 that tablets
were employed for this purpose even before the time of the
Trojan war. It is generally supposed, too, that the country
which that poet speaks of as Egypt, was not the same that is
at present understood by that name, for the Sebennytic and
the Saitic
199 Nomes, in which all the papyrus is produced, have
been added since his time by the alluvion of the Nile; indeed,
he himself has stated
200 that the main-land was a day and a
night's sail from the island of Pharos
201, which island at the
present day is united by a bridge to the city of Alexandria. In
later times, a rivalry having sprung up between King Ptolemy
and King Eumenes,
202 in reference to their respective libraries,
Ptolemy prohibited the export of papyrus; upon which, as Varro
relates, parchment was invented for a similar purpose at
Pergamus. After this, the use of that commodity, by which
immortality is ensured to man, became universally known.
CHAP. 22.—THE MODE OF MAKING PAPER.
Papyrus grows either in the marshes of Egypt, or in the
sluggish waters of the river Nile, when they have overflowed
and are lying stagnant, in pools that do not exceed a couple of
cubits in depth. The root lies obliquely,
203 and is about the
thickness of one's arm; the section of the stalk is triangular,
and it tapers gracefully upwards towards the extremity,
being not more than ten cubits at most in height. Very much
like a thyrsus
204 in shape, it has a head on the top, which has
no seed
205 in it, and, indeed, is of no use whatever, except as a
flower employed to crown the statues of the gods. The
natives use the roots by way of wood, not only for firing, but
for various other domestic purposes as well. From the papyrus itself they construct boats
206 also, and of the outer coat they
make sails and mats, as well as cloths, besides coverlets and
ropes; they chew it also, both raw and boiled, though they
swallow the juice only.
The papyrus grows in Syria also, on the borders of the same
lake around which grows the sweet-scented calamus;
207 and
King Antiochus used to employ the productions of that country
solely as cordage for naval purposes; for the use of spartum
208
had not then become commonly known. More recently it has
been understood that a papyrus grows in the river Euphrates,
in the vicinity of Babylon, from which a similar kind of paper
may easily be produced: still, however, up to the present time
the Parthians have preferred to impress
209 their characters upon
cloths
CHAP. 23. (12)—THE NINE DIFFERENT KINDS OF PAPER.
Paper is made from the papyrus, by splitting it with a
needle into very thin leaves, due care being taken that they
should be as broad as possible. That of the first quality is
taken from the centre of the plant, and so in regular succession,
according to the order of division. "Hieratica"
210 was the name
that was anciently given to it, from the circumstance that it
was entirely reserved for the religious books. In later times,
through a spirit of adulation, it received the name of "Augusta," just as that of second quality was called "Liviana,"
from his wife, Livia; the consequence of which was, that the
name "hieratica" came to designate that of only third-rate
quality. The paper of the next quality was called "amphitheatrica," from the locality
211 of its manufacture. The skilful
manufactory that was established by Fannius
212 at Rome, was in
the habit of receiving this last kind, and there, by a very
careful process of insertion, it was rendered much finer; so
much so, that from being a common sort, he made it a paper of
first-rate quality, and gave his own
213 name to it: while that
which was not subjected to this additional process retained
its original name of "amphitheatrica." Next to this is the
Saitic paper, so called from the city of that name,
214 where
it is manufactured in very large quantities, though of cuttings
of inferior
215 quality. The Tæniotic paper, so called from a
place in the vicinity,
216 is manufactured from the materials that
lie nearer to the outside skin; it is sold, not according to its
quality, but by weight only. As to the paper that is known
as "emporetica,"
217 it is quite useless for writing upon, and is
only employed for wrapping up other paper, and as a covering
for various articles of merchandize, whence its name, as being
used by dealers. After this comes the bark of the papyrus,
the outer skin of which bears a strong resemblance to the
bulrush, and is solely used for making ropes, and then only
for those which have to go into the water.
218
All these various kinds of paper are made upon a table,
moistened with Nile water; a liquid which, when in a
muddy state, has the peculiar qualities of glue.
219 This table
being first inclined,
220 the leaves of papyrus are laid upon it
lengthwise, as long, indeed, as the papyrus will admit of, the
jagged edges being cut off at either end; after which a cross
layer is placed over it, the same way, in fact, that hurdles are
made. When this is done, the leaves are pressed close together,
and then dried in the sun; after which they are united to one
another, the best sheets being always taken first, and the inferior ones added afterwards. There are never more than
twenty of these sheets to a roll.
221
CHAP. 24.—THE MODE OF TESTING THE GOODNESS OF PAPER.
There is a great difference in the breadth of the various
kinds of paper. That of best quality
222 is thirteen fingers wide,
while the hieratica is two fingers less. The Fanniana is ten
fingers wide, and that known as "amphitheatrica," one less.
The Saitic is of still smaller breadth, indeed it is not so
wide as the mallet with which the paper is beaten; and the
emporetica is particularly narrow, being not more than six
fingers in breadth.
In addition to the above particulars, paper is esteemed
according to its fineness, its stoutness, its whiteness, and its
smoothness. Claudius Cæsar effected a change in that which
till then had been looked upon as being of the first quality:
for the Augustan paper had been found to be so remarkably
fine, as to offer no resistance to the pressure of the pen; in
addition to which, as it allowed the writing upon it to run
through, it was continually causing apprehensions of its being
blotted and blurred by the writing on the other side; the remarkable transparency, too, of the paper was very unsightly to
the eye. To obviate these inconveniences, a groundwork of
paper was made with leaves of the second quality, over which
was laid a woof, as it were, formed of leaves of the first. He
increased the width also of paper; the width [of the common
sort] being made a foot, and that of the size known as "macrocollum,"
223 a cubit; though one inconvenience was soon detected
in it, for, upon a single leaf
224 being torn in the press, more
pages were apt to be spoilt than before.
225 In consequence of
the advantages above-mentioned, the Claudian has come to be
preferred to all other kinds of paper, though the Augustan is
still used for the purposes of epistolary correspondence. The
Livian, which had nothing in common with that of first quality,
but was entirely of a secondary rank, still holds its former
place.
CHAP. 25.—THE PECULIAR DEFECTS IN PAPER.
The roughness and inequalities in paper are smoothed down
with a tooth
226 or shell; but the writing in such places is very
apt to fade. When it is thus polished the paper does not take
the ink so readily, but is of a more lustrous and shining surface.
The water of the Nile that has been originally employed in
its manufacture, being sometimes used without due precaution,
will unfit the paper for taking writing: this fault, however,
may be detected by a blow with the mallet, or even by
the smell,
227 when the carelessness has been extreme. These
spots, too, may be detected by the eye; but the streaks that
run down the middle of the leaves where they have been
pasted together, though they render the paper spongy and of
a soaking nature, can hardly ever be detected before the ink
runs, while the pen is forming the letters; so many are the
openings for fraud to be put in practice. The consequence is,
that another labour has been added to the due preparation
of paper.
CHAP. 26.—THE PASTE USED IN THE PREPARATION OF PAPER.
The common paper paste is made of the finest flour of wheat
mixed with boiling water, and some small drops of vinegar
sprinkled in it: for the ordinary workman's paste, or gum,
if employed for this purpose, will render the paper brittle.
Those, however, who take the greatest pains, boil the crumb
of leavened bread, and then strain off the water: by the
adoption of this method the paper has the fewest seams caused
by the paste that lies between, and is softer than the nap of
linen even. All kinds of paste that are used for this purpose,
ought not to be older or newer than one day. The paper is
then thinned out with a mallet, after which a new layer of
paste is placed upon it; then the creases which have formed
are again pressed out, and it then undergoes the same process
with the mallet as before. It is thus that we have memorials
preserved in the ancient handwriting of Tiberius and Caius
Gracchus, which I have seen in the possession of Pomponius
Secundus,
228 the poet, a very illustrious citizen, almost two
hundred years since those characters were penned. As for the
handwriting of Cicero, Augustus, and Virgil, we frequently
see them at the present day.
CHAP. 27. (13.)—THE BOOKS OF NUMA.
There are some facts of considerable importance which make
against the opinion expressed by M. Varro, relative to the
invention of paper. Cassius Hemina, a writer of very great
antiquity, has stated in the Fourth Book of his Annals, that
Cneius Terentius, the scribe, while engaged in digging on his
land in the Janiculum, came to a coffer, in which Numa had
been buried, the former king of Rome, and that in this coffer
were also found some books
229 of his. This took place in the
consulship of Publius Cornelius Cethegus, the son of Lucius,
and of M. Bæbius Tamphilus, the son of Quintus, the interval
between whose consulship and the reign of Numa was five
hundred and thirty-five years. These books were made of
paper, and, a thing that is more remarkable still, is the fact
that they lasted so many years buried in the ground. In
order, therefore, to establish a fact of such singular importance, I shall here quote the words of Hemina himself—"Some
persons expressed wonder how these books could have possibly
lasted so long a time—this was the explanation that Terentius gave: 'In nearly the middle of the coffer there lay a square
stone, bound on every side with cords enveloped in wax;
230
upon this stone the books had been placed, and it was through
this precaution, he thought, that they had not rotted. The
books, too, were carefully covered with citrus leaves,
231 and it
was through this, in his belief, that they had been protected
from the attacks of worms.' In these books were written
certain doctrines relative to the Pythagorean philosophy; they
were burnt by Q. Petilius, the prætor, because they treated
of philosophical subjects."
232
Piso, who had formerly been censor, relates the same facts
in the First Book of his Commentaries, but he states in addition,
That there were seven books on Pontitical Rights, and seven on
the Pythagorean philosophy.
233 Tuditanus, in his Fourteenth
Book, says that they contained the decrees of uma: Varro, in
the Seventh Book of his "Antiquities of Mankind,"
234 states that
they were twelve in number; and Antias, in his Second Book,
says that there were twelve written in Latin, on pontifical
matters, and as many in Greek, containing philosophical precepts. The same author states also in his Third Book why
it was thought proper to burn them.
It is a fact acknowledged by all writers, that the Sibyl
235
brought three books to Tarquinius Superbus, of which two
were burnt by herself, while the third perished by fire with
the Capitol
236 in the days of Sylla. In addition to these facts,
Mucianus, who was three times consul, has stated that he had
recently read, while governor of Lycia, a letter written upon
paper, and preserved in a certain temple there, which had
been written from Troy, by Sarpedon; a thing that surprises
me the more, if it really was the fact that even in the time
of Homer the country that we call Egypt was not in existence.
237
And why too, if paper was then in use, was it the
custom, as it is very well known it was, to write upon leaden
tablets and linen cloths? Why, too, has Homer
238 stated that
in Lycia tablets
239 were given to Bellerophon to carry, and not
a paper letter?
Papyrus, for making paper, is apt to fail occasionally; such
a thing happened in the time of the Emperor Tiberius, when
there was so great a scarcity
240 of paper that members of the
senate were appointed to regulate the distribution of it: had
not this been done, all the ordinary relations of life would
have been completely disarranged.
CHAP. 28. (14.)—THE TREES OF ÆTHIOPIA.
Æthiopia, which borders upon Egypt, has in general no
remarkable trees, with the exception of the wool-bearing
241
ones, of which we have had occasion to speak
242 in our description of the trees of India and Arabia. However, the produce
of the tree of Æthiopia bears a much stronger resemblance to
wool, and the follicule is much larger, being very similar in
appearance to a pomegranate; as for the trees, they are otherwise similar in every respect. Besides this tree, there are
some palms, of which we have spoken already.
243 In describing
the islands along the coast of Æthiopia, we have already made
mention
244 of their trees and their odoriferous forests.
CHAP. 29. (15.)—THE TREES OF MOUNT ATLAS. THE CITRUS, AND
THE TABLES MADE OF THE WOOD THEREOF.
Mount Atlas is said to possess a forest of trees of a peculiar
character,
245 of which we have already spoken.
246 In the vicinity
of this mountain is Mauretania, a country which abounds in
the citrus,
247 a tree which gave rise to the mania
248 for fine
tables, an extravagance with which the women reproach the
men, when they complain of their vast outlay upon pearls.
There is preserved to the present day a table which belonged
to M. Cicero,
249 and for which, notwithstanding his comparatively moderate means, and what is even more surprising still,
at that day too, he gave no less than one"
250 million sesterces:
we find mention made also of one belonging to Gallus Asinius,
which cost one million one hundred thousand sesterces. Two
tables were also sold by auction which had belonged to King
Juba; the price fetched by one was one million two hundred
thousand sesterces, and that of the other something less.
There has been lately destroyed by fire, a table which came
down from the family of the Cethegi, and which had been sold
for the sum of one million four hundred thousand sesterces,
the price of a considerable domain, if any one, indeed, could be
found who would give so large a sum for an estate.
The largest table that has ever yet been known was one
that belonged to Ptolemæus, king of Mauretania; it was made
of two semicircumferences joined together down the middle,
being four Feet and a half in diameter, and a quarter of a foot
in thickness: the most wonderful fact, however, connected
with it, was the surprising skill with which the joining had
been concealed,
251 and which rendered it more valuable than if
it had been by nature a single piece of wood. The largest
table that is made of a single piece of wood, is the one that
takes its name
252 from Nomius, a freedman of Tiberius Cæsar.
The diameter of it is four Feet, short by three quarters of an
inch, and it is half a foot in thickness, less the same fraction.
While speaking upon this subject, I ought not to omit to mention that the Emperor Tiberius had a table that exceeded four
Feet in diameter by two inches and a quarter, and was an inch
and a half in thickness: this, however, was only covered with
a veneer of citrus-wood, while that which belonged to his
freedman Nomius was so costly, the whole material of which
it was composed being knotted
253 wood.
These knots are properly a disease or excrescence of the
root, and those used for this purpose are more particularly
esteemed which have lain entirely concealed under ground;
they are much more rare than those that grow above ground,
and that are to be found on the branches also. Thus, to speak
correctly, that which we buy at so vast a price is in reality a
defect in the tree: of the size and root of it a notion may be
easily formed from the circular sections of its trunk. The
tree resembles the wild female cypress
254 in its foliage, smell,
and the appearance of the trunk. A spot called Mount Ancorarius, in Nearer Mauretania, used formerly to furnish the
most esteemed citrus-wood, but at the present day the supply
is quite exhausted.
CHAP. 30.—THE POINTS THAT ARE DESIRABLE OR OTHERWISE IN
THESE TABLES.
The principal merit of these tables is to have veins
255 arranged
in waving lines, or else forming spirals like so many little
whirlpools. In the former arrangement the lines run in an
oblong direction, for which reason these are called "tiger"
256
tables; while in the latter the marks are circling and spiral,
and hence they are styled "panther"
257 tables. There are
some tables also with wavy, undulating marks, and which are
more particularly esteemed if these resemble the eyes on a
peacock's tail. Next in esteem to these last, as well as those
previously mentioned, is the veined wood,
258 covered, as it were,
with dense masses of grain, for which reason these tables have
received the name of "apiatæ."
259 But the colour of the wood
is the quality that is held in the highest esteem of all: that
of wine mixed with honey
260 being the most prized, the veins being
peculiarly refulgent. Next to the colour, it is the size that is
prized; at the present day whole trunks are greatly admired,
and sometimes several are united in a single table.
The peculiar defects in these kinds of tables are woodiness,
261
such being the name given to the table when the wood is dull,
common-looking, indistinct, or else has mere simple marks
upon it, resembling the leaves of the plane-tree; also, when
it resembles the veins of the holm-oak or the colour of that
tree; and, a fault to which it is peculiarly liable from the
effect of heat or wind, when it has flaws in it or hair-like lines
resembling flaws; when it has a black mark, too, running
through it resembling a murena in appearance, various streaks
that look like crow scratches, or knots like poppy heads, with a
colour all over nearly approaching to black, or blotches of a
sickly hue. The barbarous tribes bury this wood in the
ground while green, first giving it a coating of wax. When
it comes into the workmen's hands, they put it for seven days
beneath a heap of corn, and then take it out for as many
more: it is quite surprising how greatly it loses in weight by
this process. Shipwrecks have recently taught us also that this
wood is dried by the action of sea-water, and that it thereby
acquires a hardness
262 and a degree of density which render it
proof against corruption no other method is equally sure to
produce these results. These tables are kept best, and shine
with the greatest lustre, when rubbed with the dry hand,
more particularly just after bathing. As if this wood had
been created for the behoof of wine, it receives no injury
from it.
(16.) As this tree is one among the elements of more civilized life, I think that it is as well on the present occasion to
dwell a little further upon it. It was known to Homer even,
and in the Greek it is known by the name of "thyon,"
263 or
sometimes "thya." He says that the wood of this tree was
among the unguents that were burnt for their pleasant odour
by Circe,
264 whom he would represent as being a goddess; a
circumstance which shows the great mistake committed by
those who suppose that perfumes are meant under that name,
265
seeing that in the very same line he says that cedar and larch
were burnt along with this wood, a thing that clearly proves
that it is only of different trees that he is speaking. Theophrastus, an author who wrote in the age succeeding that of
Alexander the Great, and about the year of the City of Rome
440, has awarded a very high rank to this tree, stating that it
is related that the raftering of the ancient temples used to be
made of this wood, and that the timber, when employed in
roofs, will last for ever, so to say, being proof against all decay,—quite incorruptible, in fact. He also says that there is
nothing more full of wavy veins
266 than the root of this tree, and
that there is no workmanship in existence more precious than
that made of this material. The finest kind of citrus grows,
he says, in the vicinity of the Temple of Jupiter Hammon;
he states also that it is produced in the lower part of Cyre-
naica. He has made no mention, however, of the tables that
are made of it; indeed, we have no more ancient accounts of
them than those of the time of Cicero, from which it would
appear that they are a comparatively recent invention.
CHAP. 31.—THE CITRON-TREE.
There is another tree also which has the same name of
"citrus,"
267 and bears a fruit that is held by some persons in
particular dislike for its smell and remarkable bitterness;
while, on the other hand, there are some who esteem it very
highly. This tree is used as an ornament to houses; it requires, however, no further description.
CHAP. 32. (17.)—THE LOTUS.
Africa, too, at least that part of it which looks towards
our shores, produces a remarkable tree, the lotus,
268 by some
known as the "celtis," which has also been naturalized in Italy,
269
though it has been somewhat modified by the change of soil.
The finest quality of lotus is that found in the vicinity of the
Syrtes and among the Nasamones. It is the same size as the
pear-tree, although Cornelius Nepos states to the effect that it
is but short. The leaves have numerous incisions, just as with
those of the holm-oak. There are many varieties of the lotus,
which are characterized more particularly by the difference in
their respective fruits. The fruit is of about the size of a
bean, and its colour is that of saffron, though before it is ripe
it is continually changing its tints, like the grape. It has
branches thickly set with leaves, like the myrtle, and not,
as with us in Italy, like the cherry. In the country to
which this tree is indigenous, the fruit of it is so remarkably
sweet and luscious, that it has even given its name to a whole
territory, and to a nation
270 who, by their singular hospitality,
have even seduced strangers who have come among them, to
lose all remembrance of their native country. It is said also,
that those who eat this fruit are subject to no maladies of the
stomach. The fruit which has no stone in the inside is the
best: this stone in the other kind seems to be of an osseous
nature. A wine is also extracted from this fruit very similar
to honied wine; according to Nepos, however, it will not last
above ten days; he states also that the berries are chopped up
with alica,
271 and then put away in casks for the table. Indeed, we read that armies have been fed upon this food when
marching to and fro through the territory of Africa. The
wood is of a black colour, and is held in high esteem for making
flutes; from the root also they manufacture handles for knives,
and various other small articles.
Such is the nature of the tree that is so called in Africa; the
same name being also given to a certain
272 herb, and to a stalk
273
that grows in Egypt belonging to the marsh plants. This last
plant springs up when the waters of the Nile have retired after
its overflow: its stalk is similar to that of the bean, and its
leaves are numerous and grow in thick clusters, but are shorter
and more slender than those of the bean. The fruit grows on
the head of the plant, and is similar in appearance to a poppy
in its indentations
274 and all its other characteristics; within
there are small grains, similar to those of millet.
275 The inhabitants lay these heads in large heaps, and there let them
rot, after which they separate the grain from the residue by
washing, and then dry it; when this is done they pound it,
and then use it as flour for making a kind of bread. What is
stated in addition to these particulars, is a very singular
276 fact;
it is said that when the sun sets, these poppy-heads shut and
cover themselves in the leaves, and at sun-rise they open
again; an alternation which continues until the fruit is perfectly ripe, and the flower, which is white, falls off.
(18.) Even more than this, of the lotus of the Euphrates,
277
it is said that the head and flower of the plant, at nightfall,
sink into the water, and there remain till midnight, so deep in
the water, that on thrusting in one's arm, the head cannot be
reached: after midnight it commences to return upwards, and
gradually becomes more and more erect till sunrise, when it
emerges entirely from the water and opens its flower; after
which it still continues to rise, until at last it is to be seen
raised quite aloft, high above the level of the water. This
lotus has a root about the size of a quince, enveloped in a black
skin, similar to that with which the chesnut is covered. The
substance that lies within this skin is white, and forms very
pleasant food, but is better cooked, either in water or upon
hot ashes, then in a raw state. Swine fatten upon nothing
better than the peelings of this root.
CHAP. 33. (19.)—THE TREES OF CYENAICA. THE PALIURUS.
The region of Cyrenaica places before the lotus its paliurus,
278
which is more like a shrub in character, and bears a fruit of
a redder colour. This fruit contains a nut, the kernel of which
is eaten by itself, and is of a very agreeable flavour. The
taste of it is improved by wine, and, in fact, the juices are
thought to be an improvement to wine. The interior of
Africa, as far as the Garamantes and the deserts, is covered
with palms, remarkable for their extraordinary size and the
lusciousness of their fruit. The most celebrated are those in
the vicinity of the Temple of Jupiter Hammon.
CHAP. 34.—NINE VARIETIES OF THE PUNIC APPLE. BALAUSTIUM.
But the vicinity of Carthage is claimed more particularly as
its own by the fruit the name of which is the "Punic apple;"
279
though by some it is called "granatum."
280 This fruit has
been distinguished into a variety of kinds; the name of
"apyrenum"
281 being given to the one which has no
282 woody
seeds inside, but is naturally whiter than the others, the pips
being of a more agreeable flavour, and the membranes by
which they are separated not so bitter. Their conformation in
283
other respects, which is very similar to the partitions of the
cells in the honeycomb, is much the same in all. Of those
that have a kernel there are five kinds, the sweet, the acrid,
the mixed, the acid, and the vinous: those of Samos and
Egypt are distinguished into those with red, and those with
white foliage.
284 The skin, while the fruit is yet sour, is held
in high esteem for tanning leather. The flower of this tree is
known by the name of "balaustium," and is very useful for
medicinal purposes;
285 also for dyeing cloths a colour which
from it has derived its name.
286
CHAP. 35. (20.)—THE TREES OF ASIA AND GREECE; THE EPIPACTIS,
THE ERICA, THE CNIDIAN GRAIN OR THYMELÆA, PYROSACHNE,
CNESTRON, OR CNEORON.
In Asia and Greece are produced the following shrubs, the
epipactis,
287 by some known as "elleborine," the leaves of
which are of small size, and when taken in drink, are an
antidote against poison; just in the same way that those of
the erica
288 are a specific against the sting of the serpent.
(21.) Here is also found another shrub, upon which grows
the grain of Cnidos,
289 by some known as "linum;" the name
of the shrub itself being thymelæa,
290 while others, again, call it
"chamelæa,
291 others pyrosachne, others cnestron, and others
cneorum; it bears a strong resemblance to the wild olive, but
has a narrow leaf, which has a gummy taste in the mouth.
The shrub is of about the size of the myrtle; its seed is of the
same colour and appearance, but is solely used for medicinal
purposes.
CHAP. 36.—THE TRAGION: TRAGACANTHE.
The island of Crete is the only place that produces the
shrub called "tragion."
292 It is similar in appearance to the
terebinth;
293 a similarity which extends to the seed even, said
to be remarkably efficacious for healing wounds made by
arrows. The same island produces tragacanthe
294 also, with a
root which resembles that of the white thorn; it is very much
preferred
295 to that which is grown in Media or in Achaia; the
price at which it sells is three denarii per pound.
CHAP. 37.—THE TRAGOS OR SCORPIO; THE MYRICA OR BRYA; THE
OSTRYS.
Asia, too, produces the tragos
296 or scorpio, a thorny shrub,
destitute of leaves, with red clusters upon it that are employed
in medicine. Italy produces the myrica, which some persons
call the "tamarix;"
297 and Achaia, the wild brya,
298 remarkable
for the circumstance that it is only the cultivated kind that
bears a fruit, not unlike the gall-nut. In Syria and Egypt
this plant is very abundant. It is to the trees of this last
country that we give the name of "unhappy;"
299 but yet those
of Greece are more unhappy still, for that country produces the
tree known as "ostrya," or, as it is sometimes called, "ostrya,"
300
a solitary tree that grows about rocks washed by the water,
and very similar in the bark and branches to the ash. It re-
sembles the pear-tree in its leaves, which, however, are a little
longer and thicker, with wrinkled indentations running down
the whole length of the leaf. The seed of this tree resembles
barley in form and colour. The wood is hard and solid; it is
said, that if it is introduced into a house, it is productive of
painful deliveries and of shocking deaths.
CHAP. 38. (22.)—THE EUONYMOS.
There is no tree productive of a more auspicious presage
than one which grows in the Isle of Lesbos, and is known by
the name of euonymos.
301 It bears some resemblance to the
pomegranate tree, the leaf being in size between the leaf of
that and the leaf of the laurel, while in shape and softness it
resembles that of the pomegranate tree: it has a white blossom,
302 by which it immediately gives us notice of its dangerous
properties.
303 It bears a pod
304 very similar to that of sesame,
within which there is a grain of quadrangular shape, of coarse
make and poisonous to animals. The leaf, too, has the same
noxious effects; sometimes, however, a speedy alvine discharge
is found to give relief on such occasions.
CHAP. 39.—THE TREE CALLED EON.
Alexander Cornelius has called a tree by the name of
"eon,"
305 with the wood of which, he says, the ship Argo was
built. This tree has on it a mistletoe similar to that of the
oak, which is proof against all injury from either fire or water,
in the same manner, in fact, as that of no other tree known.
This tree, however, appears to have been known to no other
author, that I am aware of.
CHAP. 40.—THE ANDRACHLE.306
Nearly all the Greek writers interpret the name of the tree
called "andrachle," as meaning the same as "purslain:"
307
whereas purslain is, in reality, a herb, and, with the difference
of a single letter, is called "andrachne." The andrachne is a
wild tree, which never grows in the plain country, and is similar to the arbute tree in appearance, only that its leaves are
smaller, and never fall off. The bark, too, is not rough, but
might be taken to be frozen all over, so truly wretched is its
appearance.
CHAP. 41.—THE COCCYGIA; THE APHARCE.
Similar, too, in leaf to the preceding tree, is the coccygia,
308
though not so large; it has this peculiarity, that it loses its
fruit while still in the downy
309 state—they then call it
"pappus"—a thing that happens to no other tree. The
apharce
310 is another tree that is similar to the andrachle, and
like it, bears twice in the year: just as the grape is beginning
to flower the first fruit is ripening, while the second fruit
ripens at the commencement of winter; of what nature this
fruit is we do not find stated.
CHAP. 42.—THE FERULA.
We ought to place the ferula
311 also in the number of the
exotics, and as making one of the trees. For, in fact, we distinguish the trees into several different kinds: it is the nature
of some to have wood entirely in place of bark, or, in other
words, on the outside; while, in the interior, in place of wood,
there is a fungous kind of pith, like that of the elder;
others, again, are hollow within, like the reed. The ferula
grows in hot countries and in places beyond sea, the stalk
being divided into knotted joints. There are two kinds of it;
that which grows upwards to a great height the Greeks call
by the name of "narthex,"
312 while the other, which never
rises far from the ground, is known as the "narthecya."
313
From the joints very large leaves shoot forth, the largest lying
nearest to the ground: in other respects it has the same nature as the anise, which it resembles also in its fruit. The
wood of no shrub is lighter than this; hence it is very easily
carried, and the stalks of it make good walking-sticks
314 for
the aged.
CHAP. 43.—THE THAPSIA.
The seed of the ferula has been by some persons called
"thapsia;"
315 deceived, no doubt, by what is really the fact,
that the thapsia is a ferula, but of a peculiar kind, with leaves
like those of fennel, and a hollow stalk not exceeding a walking-stick in length; the seed is like that of the ferula, and
the root of the plant is white. When an incision is made in
the thapsia, a milky juice oozes from it, and, when pounded,
it produces a kind of juice; the bark even is never thrown
316
away. All these parts of the shrub are poisonous, and, indeed, it is productive of injurious effects to those engaged in
digging it up; for if the slightest wind should happen to be
blowing towards them from the shrub, the body begins to
swell, and erysipelas attacks the face: it is for this reason that,
before beginning work, they anoint the face all over with a
solution of wax. Still, however, the medical men say that,
mixed with other ingredients, it is of considerable use in the
treatment of some diseases. It is employed also for the cure
of scald-head, and for the removal of black and blue spots
upon the skin, as if, indeed, we were really at a loss for remedies in such cases, without having recourse to things of so
deadly a nature. These plants, however, act their part in
serving as a pretext for the introduction of noxious agents;
and so great is the effrontery now displayed, that people would
absolutely persuade one that poisons are a requisite adjunct to
the practice of the medical art.
The thapsia of Africa
317 is the most powerful of all. Some
persons make an incision in the stalk at harvest-time, and bore
holes in the root, too, to let the juice flow; after it has become quite dry, they take it away. Others, again, pound the
leaves, stalk, and root in a mortar, and after drying the juice
in the sun, divide it into lozenges.
318 Nero Cæsar, at the beginning of his reign, conferred considerable celebrity on this
plant. In his nocturnal skirmishes
319 it so happened that he
received several contusions on the face, upon which he
anointed it with a mixture composed of thapsia, frankincense,
and wax, and so contrived the next day effectually to give the
lie to all rumours, by appearing with a whole skin.
320 It is a
well-known fact, that fire
321 is kept alight remarkably well in
the hollow stalk of the ferula, and that for this purpose those
of Egypt are the best.
CHAP. 44. (23.)—THE CAPPARIS OR CYNOSBATON, OTHERWISE
OPHIOSTAPHYLE.
In Egypt, too, the capparis
322 is found, a shrub with a wood
of much greater solidity. The seed of it is a well-known
article of food,
323 and is mostly gathered together with the stalk.
It is as well, however, to be on our guard against the foreign
kinds;
324 for that of Arabia has certain deleterious properties,
that from Africa is injurious to the gums, and that from
Marmarica is prejudicial to the womb and causes flatulence
in all the organs. That of Apulia, too, is productive of vomiting, and causes derangement in the stomach and intestines.
Some persons call this shrub "cynosbaton,"
325 others, again,
"ophiostaphyle."
326
CHAP. 45.—THE SARIPHA.
The saripha,
327 too, that grows on the banks of the Nile, is
one of the shrub genus. It is generally about two cubits in
height, and of the thickness of one's thumb: it has the foliage
of the papyrus, and is eaten in a similar manner. The root,
in consequence of its extreme hardness, is used as a substitute
for charcoal in forging iron.
CHAP. 46. (24.)—THE ROYAL THORN.
We must take care, also, not to omit a peculiar shrub that
is planted at Babylon, and only upon a thorny plant there,
as it will not live anywhere else, just in the same manner as
the mistletoe will live nowhere but upon trees. This shrub,
however, will only grow upon a kind of thorn, which is known
as the royal thorn.
328 It is a wonderful fact, but it germinates
the very same day that it has been planted. This is done
at the rising of the Dog-star, after which it speedily takes
possession of the whole tree. They use it in the preparation
of wine, and it is for this purpose that it is planted. This
thorn grows at Athens also, upon the Long Walls there.
329
CHAP. 47.—THE CYTISUS.
The cytisus
330 is also a shrub, which, as a food for sheep; has
been extolled with wonderful encomiums by Aristomachus the
Athenian, and, in a dry state, for swine as well: the same
author, too, pledges his word that a jugerum of very middling land, planted with the cytisus, will produce an income
of two thousand sesterces per annum. It is quite as useful as
the ervum,
331 but is apt to satiate more speedily: very little of
it is necessary to fatten cattle; to such a degree, indeed, that
beasts of burden, when fed upon it, will very soon take a dislike to barley. There is no fodder known, in fact, that is
productive of a greater abundance of milk, and of better quality; in the medical treatment of cattle in particular, this
shrub is found a most excellent specific for every kind of malady. Even more than this, the same author recommends it,
when first dried and then boiled in water, to be given to nursing women, mixed with wine, in cases where the milk has
failed them: and he says that, if this is done, the infant will
be all the stronger and taller for it. In a green state, or, if
dried, steeped in water, he recommends it for fowls. Both
Democritus and Aristomachus promise us also that bees will
never fail us so long as they can obtain the cytisus for food.
There is no crop that we know of, of a similar nature, that
costs a smaller price. It is sown at the same time as barley,
or, at all events, in the spring, in seed like the leek, or else
planted in the autumn, and before the winter solstice, in the stalk.
When sown in grain, it ought to be steeped in water, and if
there should happen to be no rain, it ought to be watered
when sown: when the plants are about a cubit in height,
they are replanted in trenches a foot in depth. It is transplanted at the equinoxes, while the shrub is yet tender, and in
three years it will arrive at maturity. It is cut at the vernal
equinox, when the flower is just going off; a child or an old
woman is able to do this, and their labour may be had at a
trifling rate. It is of a white appearance, and if one would
wish to express briefly what it looks like, it is a trifoliated
shrub,
332 with small, narrow leaves. It is always given to
animals at intervals of a couple of days, and in winter, when it is
dry, before being given to them, it is first moistened with water.
Ten pounds of cytisus will suffice for a horse, and for smaller
animals in proportion: if I may here mention it by the way,
it is found very profitable to sow garlic and onions between
the rows of cytisus.
This shrub has been found in the Isle of Cythnus, from
whence it has been transplanted to all the Cyclades, and more
recently to the cities of Greece, a fact which has greatly increased the supply of cheese: considering which, I am much
surprised that it is so rarely used in Italy. This shrub is proof,
too, against all injuries from heat, from cold, from hail, and
from snow: and, as Hyginus adds, against the depredations of
the enemy even, the wood
333 produced being of no value whatever.
CHAP. 48. (25.)—THE TREES AND SHRUBS OF THE MEDITER-
RANEAN. THE PHYCOS, PRASON, OR ZOSTER.
Shrubs and trees grow in the sea
334 as well; those of our
sea
335 are of inferior size, while, on the other hand, the Red Sea
and all the Eastern Ocean are filled with dense forests. No
other language has any name for the shrub which is known to
the Greeks as the "phycos,"
336 since by the word "alga"
337 a
mere herb is generally understood, while the "phycos" is a
complete shrub. This plant has a broad leaf of a green colour, which is by some called "prason,"
338 and by others is
known as "zoster."
339 Another kind,
340 again, has a hairy sort
of leaf, very similar to fennel, and grows upon rocks, while
that previously mentioned grows in shoaly spots, not far from
the shore. Both kinds shoot in the spring, and die in autumn.
341
The phycos
342 which grows on the rocks in the neighbourhood
of Crete, is used also for dyeing purple; the best kind being
that produced on the north side of the island, which is the
case also with sponges of the very best quality. A third kind,
343
again, is similar in appearance to grass; the root of it is
knotted, and so is the stalk, which resembles that of a reed.
CHAP. 49.—THE SEA BRYON.
There is another kind of marine shrub, known by the name
of "bryon;"
344 it has the leaf of the lettuce, only that it is
of a more wrinkled appearance; it grows nearer land, too, than
the last. Far out at sea we find a fir-tree
345 and an oak,
346
each a cubit in height; shells are found adhering to their
branches. It is said that this sea-oak is used for dyeing wool,
and that some of them even bear acorns
347 in the sea, a fact which
has been ascertained by shipwrecked persons and divers. There
are other marine trees also of remarkable size, found in the
vicinity of Sicyon; the sea-vine,
348 indeed, grows everywhere.
The sea-fig
349 is destitute of leaves, and the bark is red. There
is a palm-tree
350 also in the number of the sea-shrubs. Beyond
the columns of Hercules there is a sea-shrub that grows with
the leaf of the leek, and others with those of the carrot,
351 and
of thyme. Both of these last, when thrown up by the tide,
are transformed
352 into pumice.
CHAP. 50.—PLANTS OF THE RED SEA.
In the East, it is a very remarkable thing, that immediately
after leaving Coptos, as we pass through the deserts, we find
nothing whatever growing, with the exception of the thorn that
is known as the "thirsty"
353 thorn; and this but very rarely.
In the Red Sea, however, there are whole forests found growing, among which more particularly there are plants that bear
the laurel-berry and the olive;
354 when it rains also certain
fungi make their appearance, which, as soon as they are touched
by the rays of the sun, are turned into pumice.
355 The size of the
shrubs is three cubits in height; and they are all filled with
sea-dogs,
356 to such a degree, that it is hardly safe to look at
them from the ship, for they will frequently seize hold of the
very oars.
CHAP. 51.—PLANTS OF THE INDIAN SEA.
The officers
357 of Alexander who navigated the Indian seas,
have left an account of a marine tree, the foliage of which is
green while in the water; but the moment it is taken out, it
dries and turns to salt. They have spoken also of bulrushes
358
of stone bearing a strong resemblance to real ones, which grew
along the sea-shore, as also certain shrubs
359 in the main sea,
the colour of an ox's horn, branching out in various directions, and red at the tips. These, they say, were brittle, and
broke like glass when touched, while, on the other hand, in
the fire they would become red-hot like iron, and when cool
resume their original colour.
In the same part of the earth also, the tide covers the
forests that grow on the islands, although the trees there are
more lofty
360 than the very tallest of our planes and poplars!
The leaves of these trees resemble that of the laurel, while the
blossom is similar to the violet, both in smell and colour: the
berries resemble those of the olive, and they, too, have an
agreeable smell: they appear in the autumn, and the leaves
of the trees never fall off. The smaller ones are entirely
covered by the waves, while the summits of those of larger
size protrude from the water, and ships are made fast to them;
when the tide falls the vessels are similarly moored to the roots.
We find the same persons making mention of certain other
trees which they saw out at sea, which always retained their
leaves, and bore a fruit very similar to the lupine.
CHAP. 52.—THE PLANTS OF THE TROGLODYTIC SEA; THE HAIR OF
ISIS: THE CHARITO-BLEPHARON.
Juba relates, that about the islands of the Troglodytæ
there is a certain shrub found out at sea, which is known as
the "air of Isis:"
361 he says that it bears a strong resemblance to coral, is destitute of leaves, and if cut will change
its colour, becoming quite black and hard, and so brittle as to
break if it falls. He speaks also of another marine plant, to
which he gives the name of "Charito-blepharon,"
362 and which,
he says, is particularly efficacious in love-charms.
363 Bracelets
364 and necklaces are made of it. He says also that it is sensible
365 when it is about to be taken, and that it turns as hard
as horn, so hard, indeed, as to blunt the edge of iron. If, on
the other hand, it is cut before it is sensible of the danger, it is
immediately transformed to stone.
SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations,
four hundred and sixty-eight.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,
366 Mucianus,
367 Virgil,
368
Fabianus,
369 Sebosus,
370 Pomponius Mela,
371 Fabius,
372 Procilius,
373
Hyginus,
374 Trogus,
375 Claudius Cæsar,
376 Cornelius Nepos,
377 Sextius Niger
378 who wrote in Greek on Medicine, Cassius Hemina,
379 L. Piso,
380 Tuditanus,
381 Antias.
382
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,
383 Herodotus,
384
Callisthenes,
385 Isigonus,
386 Clitarchus,
387 Anaximenes,
388 Duris,
389
Nearchus,
390 Onesicritus,
391 Polycritus,
392 Olympiodorus,
393 Diognetus,
394 Cleobulus,
395 Anticlides,
396 Chares
397 of Mitylene, Menæchmus,
398 Dorotheus
399 of Athens, Lycus,
400 Antæus,
401 Ephip-
pus,
402 Dion,
403 Adimantus,
404 Ptolemy Lagus,
405 Marsyas
406 of
Macedon, Zoilus
407 of Macedon, Democritus,
408 Amphilochus,
409
Alexander Polyhistor,
410 Aristomachus,
411 King Juba,
412 Apollodorus
413 who wrote on Perfumes, Heraclides
414 the physician,
Botrys
415 the physician, Archidemus
416 the physician, Dionysius
417 the physician, Democlides
418 the physician, Euphron
419
the physician, Mnesides
420 the physician, Diagoras
421 the physician, Iollas
422 the physician, Heraclides
423 of Tarentum, Xenocrates
424 of Ephesus.
