BOOK XVII.
SUMMARY.
The Seventeenth Book contains the whole of Egypt and Africa.
CHAPTER I.
WHEN we were describing Arabia, we included in the
description the gulfs which compress and make it a peninsula,
namely the Gulfs of Arabia and of Persis. We described at
the same time some parts of Egypt, and those of Ethiopia,
inhabited by the Troglodytæ, and by the people situated next
to them, extending to the confines of the Cinnamon country.
1
We are now to describe the remaining parts contiguous to
these nations, and situated about the Nile. We shall then
give an account of Africa, which remains to complete this
treatise on Geography.
And here we must previously adduce the opinions of Eratosthenes.
[
2]
He says, that the Nile is distant from the Arabian Gulf
towards the west 1000 stadia, and that it resembles (in its
course) the letter N reversed. For after flowing, he says,
about 2700 stadia from Meroë towards the north, it turns
again to the south, and to the winter sunset, continuing its
course for about 3700 stadia, when it is almost in the latitude
of the places about Meroë. Then entering far into Africa,
and having made another bend, it flows towards the north,
a distance of 5300 stadia, to the great cataract;
2 and inclining
a little to the east, traverses a distance of 1200 stadia to the
smaller cataract at Syene,
3 and 5300 stadia more to the sea.
4
Two rivers empty themselves into it, which issue out of
some lakes towards the east, and encircle Meroë, a consider-
able island.
5 One of these rivers is called Astaboras,
6 flowing
along the eastern side of the island. The other is the Astapus, or, as some call it, Astasobas. But the Astapus
7 is said
to be another river, which issues out of some lakes on the south,
and that this river forms nearly the body of the (stream of
the) Nile, which flows in a straight line, and that it is filled by
the summer rains; that above the confluence of the Astaboras and the Nile, at the distance of 700 stadia, is Meroë,
a city having the same name as the island; and that there
is another island above Meroë, occupied by the fugitive
Egyptians, who revolted in the time of Psammitichus,
8 and
are called Sembritæ, or foreigners. Their sovereign is a
queen, but they obey the king of Meroë.
The lower parts of the country on each side Meroë, along
the Nile towards the Red Sea, are occupied by Megabari and
Blemmyes, who are subject to the Ethiopians, and border
upon the Egyptians; about the sea are Troglodytæ. The
Troglodytæ, in the latitude of Meroë, are distant ten or twelve
days' journey from the Nile. On the left of the course of the
Nile live Nubæ in Libya, a populous nation. They begin
from Meroë, and extend as far as the bends (of the river).
They are not subject to the Ethiopians, but live independently,
being distributed into several sovereignties.
The extent of Egypt along the sea, from the Pelusiac to the
Canobic mouth, is 1300 stadia.
Such is the account of Eratosthenes.
[
3]
We must, however, enter into a further detail of particulars. And first, we must speak of the parts about Egypt,
proceeding from those that are better known to those which
follow next in order.
The Nile produces some common effects in this and the
contiguous tract of country, namely, that of the Ethiopians
above it, in watering them at the time of its rise, and leaving
those parts only habitable which have been covered by the
inundation; it intersects the higher lands, and all the tract
elevated above its current on both sides, which however are
uninhabited and a desert, from an absolute want of water.
But the Nile does not traverse the whole of Ethiopia, nor
alone, nor in a straight line, nor a country which is well inhabited. But Egypt it traverses both alone and entirely,
and in a straight line, from the lesser cataract above Syene
and Elephantina, (which are the boundaries of Egypt and
Ethiopia,) to the mouths by which it discharges itself into the
sea. The Ethiopians at present lead for the most part a
wandering life, and are destitute of the means of subsistence,
on account of the barrenness of the soil, the disadvantages of
climate, and their great distance from us.
Now the contrary is the case with the Egyptians in all
these respects. For they have lived from the first under a
regular form of government, they were a people of civilized
manners, and were settled in a well-known country; their
institutions have been recorded and mentioned in terms of
praise, for they seemed to have availed themselves of the
fertility of their country in the best possible manner by the
partition of it (and by the classification of persons) which they
adopted, and by their general care.
When they had appointed a king, they divided the people
into three classes, into soldiers, husbandmen, and priests. The
latter had the care of everything relating to sacred things (of
the gods), the others of what related to man; some had the
management of warlike affairs, others attended to the concerns
of peace, the cultivation of the ground, and the practice of the
arts, from which the king derived his revenue.
The priests devoted themselves to the study of philosophy
and astronomy, and were companions of the kings.
The country was at first divided into nomes.
9 The
Thebaïs contained ten, the Delta ten, and the intermediate
tract sixteen. But according to some writers, all the nomes
together amounted to the number of chambers in the Labyrinth.
Now these were less than thirty [six]. The nomes were again
divided into other sections. The greater number of the
nomes were distributed into toparchies, and these again
into other sections ; the smallest portions were the arouræ.
An exact and minute division of the country was required
by the frequent confusion of boundaries occasioned at the
time of the rise of the Nile, which takes away, adds, and
alters the various shapes of the bounds, and obliterates other
marks by which the property of one person is distinguished
from that of another. It was consequently necessary to
measure the land repeatedly. Hence it is said geometry
originated here, as the art of keeping accounts and arithmetic
originated with the Phœnicians, in consequence of their
commerce.
10
As the whole population of the country, so the separate
population in each nome, was divided into three classes ; the
territory also was divided into three equal portions.
The attention and care bestowed upon the Nile is so great
as to cause industry to triumph over nature. The ground
by nature, and still more by being supplied with water, produces a great abundance of fruits. By nature also a greater
rise of the river irrigates a larger tract of land; but industry has completely succeeded in rectifying the deficiency of nature, so that in seasons when the rise of the river
has been less than usual, as large a portion of the country
is irrigated by means of canals and embankments, as in
seasons when the rise of the river has been greater.
Before the times of Petronius there was the greatest plenty,
and the rise of the river was the greatest when it rose to the
height of fourteen cubits; but when it rose to eight only, a famine
ensued. During the government of Petronius, however, when
the Nile rose twelve cubits only, there was a most abundant
crop; and once when it mounted to eight only, no famine followed. Such then is the nature of this provision for the
physical state of the country. We shall now proceed to the
next particulars.
[
4]
The Nile, when it leaves the boundaries of Ethiopia,
flows in a straight line towards the north, to the tract called
the Delta, then ‘cloven at the head,’ (according to the expression of Plato,) makes this point the vertex, as it were, of a
triangle, the sides of which are formed by the streams, which
separate on each side, and extend to the sea, one on the right
hand to Pelusium, the other on the left to Canobus and the
neighbouring Heracleium, as it is called ; the base is the coast
lying between Pelusium and the Heracleium.
An island was therefore formed by the sea and by both
streams of the river, which is called Delta from the resemblance of its shape to the letter (
δ) of that name. The spot at the
vertex of the triangle has the same appellation, because it is
the beginning of the above-mentioned triangular figure. The
village, also, situated upon it is called Delta.
These then are two mouths of the Nile, one of which is
called the Pelusiac, the other the Canobic and Heracleiotic
mouth. Between these are five other outlets, some of which
are considerable, but the greater part are of inferior importance. For many others branch off from the principal streams,
and are distributed over the whole of the island of the Delta,
and form many streams and islands; so that the whole Delta
is accessible to boats, one canal succeeding another, and navigated with so much ease, that some persons make use of
rafts
11 floated on earthen pots, to transport them from place to
place.
The whole island is about 3000 stadia in circumference,
and is called, as also the lower country, with the land on the
opposite sides of the streams, the Delta.
But at the time of the rising of the Nile, the whole country
is covered, and resembles a sea, except the inhabited spots,
which are situated upon natural hills or mounds ; and considerable cities and villages appear like islands in the distant
prospect.
The water, after having continued on the ground more than
forty days in summer, then subsides by degrees, in the same
manner as it rose. In sixty days the plain is entirely exposed
to view, and dries up. The sooner the land is dry, so much
the sooner the ploughing and sowing are accomplished, and
it dries earlier in those parts where the heat is greater.
The country above the Delta is irrigated in the same manner, except that the river flows in a straight line to the distance
of about 4000 stadia in one channel, unless where some island
intervenes, the most considerable of which comprises the
Heracleiotic Nome; or, where it is diverted by a canal into
a large lake, or a tract of country which it is capable of
irrigating, as the lake Mœris and the Arsinoïte Nome, or
where the canals discharge themselves into the Mareotis.
In short, Egypt, from the mountains of Ethiopia to the
vertex of the Delta, is merely a river tract on each side of the
Nile, and rarely if anywhere comprehends in one continued
line a habitable territory of 300 stadia in breadth. It resembles, except the frequent diversions of its course, a bandage
rolled out.
12
The mountains on each side (of the Nile), which descend
from the parts about Syene to the Egyptian Sea,
13 give this
shape to the river tract of which I am speaking, and to the
country. For in proportion as these mountains extend along
that tract, or recede from each other, in the same degree is
the river contracted or expanded, and they impart to the
habitable country its variety of shape. But the country beyond the mountains is in a great measure uninhabited.
[
5]
The ancients understood more by conjecture than otherwise, but persons in later times learnt by experience as eyewitnesses, that the Nile owes its rise to summer rains, which fall in
great abundance in Upper Ethiopia, particularly in the most distant mountains. On the rains ceasing, the fulness of the river
gradually subsides. This was particularly observed by those
who navigated the Arabian Gulf on their way to the Cinnamon
country, and by those who were sent out to hunt elephants, or
for such other purposes as induced the Ptolemies, kings of
Egypt, to despatch persons in that direction. These sovereigns
had directed their attention to objects of this kind, particularly Ptolemy surnamed Philadelphus, who was a lover of
science, and on account of bodily infirmities always in search
of some new diversion and amusement. But the ancient
kings paid little attention to such inquiries, although both
they and the priests, with whom they passed the greater part
of their lives, professed to be devoted to the study of philosophy. Their ignorance therefore is more surprising, both
on this account and because Sesostris had traversed the whole
of Ethiopia as far as the Cinnamon country, of which expedition monuments exist even to the present day, such as pillars
and inscriptions. Cambyses also, when he was in possession of
Egypt, had advanced with the Egyptians as far even as
Meroë; and it is said that he gave this name both to the
island and to the city, because his sister, or according to some
writers his wife, Meroë died there. For this reason therefore
he conferred the appellation on the island, and in honour of a
woman. It is surprising how, with such opportunities of obtaining information, the history of these rains should not have
been clearly known to persons living in those times, especially
as the priests registered with the greatest diligence in the sacred
books all extraordinary facts, and preserved records of everything which seemed to contribute to an increase of knowledge. And, if this had been the case, would it be necessary
to inquire what is even still a question, what can possibly be
the reason why rain falls in summer, and not in winter, in
the most southerly parts of the country, but not in the Thebaïs,
nor in the country about Syene ? nor should we have to examine whether the rise of the water of the Nile is occasioned
by rains, nor require such evidence for these facts as Poseidonius adduces. For he says, that Callisthenes asserts that
the cause of the rise of the river is the rain of summer. This
he borrows from Aristotle, who borrowed it from Thrasyalces
the Thasian (one of the ancient writers on physics), Thrasyalces from some other person, and he from Homer, who
calls the Nile ‘heaven-descended:’
“‘back to Egypt's heaven-descended stream.’
14”
But I quit this subject, since it has been discussed by many
writers, among whom it will be sufficient to specify two, who
have (each) composed in our times a treatise on the Nile,
Eudorus and Aristo the Peripatetic philosopher. [They differ
little from each other] except in the order and disposition of
the works, for the phraseology and execution is the same in both
writers. (I can speak with some confidence in this matter), for
when at a loss (for manuscripts) for the purpose of comparison
and copy, I collated both authors.
15 But which of them surreptitiously substituted the other's account as his own, we may
go to the temple of Ammon to be informed. Eudorus accused Aristo, but the style is more like that of Aristo.
The ancients gave the name of Egypt to that country only
which was inhabited and watered by the Nile, and the extent
they assigned to it was from the neighbourhood of Syene to
the sea. But later writers, to the present time, have included
on the eastern side almost all the tract between the Arabian
Gulf and the Nile (the Æthiopians however do not make
much use of the Red Sea); on the western side, the tract extending to the Auases and the parts of the sea-coast from the
Canobic mouth of the Nile to Catabathmus, and the kingdom
of Cyrenæa. For the kings who succeeded the race of the
Ptolemies had acquired so much power, that they became
masters of Cyrenæa, and even joined Cyprus to Egypt. The
Romans, who succeeded to their dominions, separated Egypt,
and confined it within the old limits.
The Egyptians give the name of Auases (Oases) to certain
inhabited tracts, which are surrounded by extensive deserts,
and appear like islands in the sea. They are frequently met
with in Libya, and there are three contiguous to Egypt, and
dependent upon it.
This is the account which we have to give of Egypt in
general and summarily. I shall now describe the separate
parts of the country and their advantages.
[
6]
As Alexandreia and its neighbourhood occupy the
greatest and principal portion of the description, I shall begin
with it.
In sailing towards the west, the sea-coast from Pelusium
to the Canobic mouth of the Nile is about 1300 stadia in extent, and constitutes, as we have said, the base of the Delta.
Thence to the island Pharos are 150 stadia more.
Pharos is a small oblong island, and lies quite close to the
continent, forming towards it a harbour with a double entrance.
For the coast abounds with bays, and has two promontories
projecting into the sea. The island is situated between these,
and shuts in the bay, lying lengthways in front of it.
Of the extremities of the Pharos, the eastern is nearest to
the continent and to the promontory in that direction, called
Lochias, which is the cause of the entrance to the port being
narrow. Besides the narrowness of the passage, there are
rocks, some under water, others rising above it, which at all
times increase the violence of the waves rolling in upon them
from the open sea. This extremity itself of the island is a
rock, washed by the sea on all sides, with a tower upon it of
the same name as the island, admirably constructed of white
marble, with several stories. Sostratus of Cnidus, a friend of
the kings, erected it for the safety of mariners, as the inscription imports.
16 For as the coast on each side is low and
without harbours, with reefs and shallows, an elevated and
conspicuous mark was required to enable navigators coming
in from the open sea to direct their course exactly to the
entrance of the harbour.
The western mouth does not afford an easy entrance, but
it does not require the same degree of caution as the other.
It forms also another port, which has the name of Eunostus, or
Happy Return: it lies in front of the artificial and close
harbour. That which has its entrance at the above-mentioned tower of Pharos is the great harbour. These (two)
lie contiguous in the recess called Heptastadium, and are
separated from it by a mound. This mound forms a bridge
from the continent to the island, and extends along its western
side, leaving two passages only through it to the harbour of
Eunostus, which are bridged over. But this work served
not only as a bridge, but as an aqueduct also, when the island
was inhabited. Divus Cæsar devastated the island, in his
war against the people of Alexandreia, when they espoused
the party of the kings. A few sailors live near the tower.
The great harbour, in addition to its being well enclosed
by the mound and by nature, is of sufficient depth near the
shore to allow the largest vessel to anchor near the stairs. It
is also divided into several ports.
The former kings of Egypt, satisfied with what they possessed, and not desirous of foreign commerce, entertained a
dislike to all mariners, especially the Greeks (who, on account
of the poverty of their own country, ravaged and coveted the
property of other nations), and stationed a guard here, who
had orders to keep off all persons who approached. To the
guard was assigned as a place of residence the spot called
Rhacotis, which is now a part of the city of Alexandreia,
situated above the arsenal. At that time, however, it was a
village. The country about the village was given up to herds-
men, who were also able (from their numbers) to prevent
strangers from entering the country.
When Alexander arrived, and perceived the advantages of
the situation, he determined to build the city on the (natural)
harbour. The prosperity of the place, which ensued, was intimated, it is said, by a presage which occurred while the
plan of the city was tracing. The architects were engaged in
marking out the line of the wall with chalk, and had consumed
it all, when the king arrived; upon which the dispensers of
flour supplied the workmen with a part of the flour, which
was provided for their own use; and this substance was used
in tracing the greater part of the divisions of the streets.
This, they said, was a good omen for the city.
[
7]
The advantages of the city are of various kinds. The
site is washed by two seas; on the north, by what is called the
Egyptian Sea, and on the south, by the sea of the lake Mareia,
which is also called Mareotis. This lake is filled by many
canals from the Nile, both by those above and those at the
sides, through which a greater quantity of merchandise is
imported than by those communicating with the sea. Hence
the harbour on the lake is richer than the maritime harbour.
The exports by sea from Alexandreia exceed the imports.
This any person may ascertain, either at Alexandreia or
Dicæarchia, by watching the arrival and departure of the
merchant vessels, and observing how much heavier or lighter
their cargoes are when they depart or when they return.
In addition to the wealth derived from merchandise landed
at the harbours on each side, on the sea and on the lake, its
fine air is worthy of remark: this results from the city being
on two sides surrounded by water, and from the favourable
effects of the rise of the Nile. For other cities, situated near
lakes, have, during the heats of summer, a heavy and suffocating atmosphere, and lakes at their margins become swampy
by the evaporation occasioned by the sun's heat. When a
large quantity of moisture is exhaled from swamps, a noxious
vapour rises, and is the cause of pestilential disorders. But
at Alexandreia, at the beginning of summer, the Nile, being
full, fills the lake also, and leaves no marshy matter which is
likely to occasion malignant exhalations. At the same period,
the Etesian winds blow from the north, over a large expanse
of sea, and the Alexandrines in consequence pass their summer very pleasantly.
[
8]
The shape of the site of the city is that of a chlamys or
military cloak. The sides, which determine the length, are
surrounded by water, and are about thirty stadia in extent;
but the isthmuses, which determine the breadth of the sides,
are each of seven or eight stadia, bounded on one side by the
sea, and on the other by the lake. The whole city is intersected by roads for the passage of horsemen and chariots.
Two of these are very broad, exceeding a plethrum in breadth,
and cut one another at right angles. It contains also very
beautiful public grounds and royal palaces, which occupy a
fourth or even a third part of its whole extent. For as each
of the kings was desirous of adding some embellishment to
the places dedicated to the public use, so, besides the buildings already existing, each of them erected a building at his
own expense; hence the expression of the poet may be here
applied,
“‘one after the other springs.’
17”
All the buildings are connected with one another and with
the harbour, and those also which are beyond it.
The Museum is a part of the palaces. It has a public
walk and a place furnished with seats, and a large hall, in
which the men of learning, who belong to the Museum, take
their common meal. This community possesses also property
in common; and a priest, formerly appointed by the kings,
but at present by Cæsar, presides over the Museum.
A part belonging to the palaces consists of that called
Sema, an enclosure, which contained the tombs of the kings
and that of Alexander (the Great). For Ptolemy the son of
Lagus took away the body of Alexander from Perdiccas, as
he was conveying it down from Babylon; for Perdiccas had
turned out of his road towards Egypt, incited by ambition
and a desire of making himself master of the country. When
Ptolemy had attacked [and made him prisoner], he intended
to [spare his life and] confine him in a desert island, but
he met with a miserable end at the hand of his own soldiers,
who rushed upon and despatched him by transfixing him with
the long Macedonian spears. The kings who were with him,
Aridæus, and the children of Alexander, and Roxana his
wife, departed to Macedonia. Ptolemy carried away the body
of Alexander, and deposited it at Alexandreia in the place
where it now lies; not indeed in the same coffin, for the present one is of hyalus (alabaster ?) whereas Ptolemy had deposited it in one of gold: it was plundered by Ptolemy surnamed
Cocce's son and Pareisactus, who came from Syria and was
quickly deposed, so that his plunder was of no service to him.
[
9]
In the great harbour at the entrance, on the right hand,
are the island and the Pharos tower; on the left are the reef
of rocks and the promontory Lochias, with a palace upon it:
at the entrance, on the left hand, are the inner palaces, which
are continuous with those on the Lochias, and contain numerous painted apartments and groves. Below lies the artificial
and close harbour, appropriated to the use of the kings; and
Antirrhodus a small island, facing the artificial harbour,
with a palace on it, and a small port. It was called Antirrhodus, a rival as it were of Rhodes.
Above this is the theatre, then the Poseidium, a kind of
elbow projecting from the Emporium, as it is called, with a
temple of Neptune upon it. To this Antony added a mound,
projecting still further into the middle of the harbour, and
built at the extremity a royal mansion, which he called
Timonium. This was his last act, when, deserted by his
partisans, he retired to Alexandreia after his defeat at Actium, and intended, being forsaken by so many friends, to lead
the [solitary] life of Timon for the rest of his days.
Next are the Cæsarium, the Emporium, and the Apostaseis, or magazines: these are followed by docks, extending
to the Heptastadium. This is the description of the great
harbour.
[
10]
Next after the Heptastadium is the harbour of Eunostus, and above this the artificial harbour, called Cibotus (or
the Ark), which also has docks. At the bottom of this harbour is a navigable canal, extending to the lake Mareotis.
Beyond the canal there still remains a small part of the city.
Then follows the suburb Necropolis, in which are numerous
gardens, burial-places, and buildings for carrying on the process of embalming the dead.
On this side the canal is the Sarapium and other ancient
sacred places, which are now abandoned on account of the
erection of the temples at Nicopolis; for [there are situated]
an amphitheatre and a stadium, and there are celebrated
quinquennial games; but the ancient rites and customs are
neglected.
In short, the city of Alexandreia abounds with public and
sacred buildings. The most beautiful of the former is the
Gymnasium, with porticos exceeding a stadium in extent. In
the middle of it are the court of justice and groves. Here
also is a Paneium, an artificial mound of the shape of a fir-cone, resembling a pile of rock, to the top of which there is
an ascent by a spiral path. From the summit may be seen
the whole city lying all around and beneath it.
The wide street extends in length along the Gymnasium
from the Necropolis to the Canobic gate. Next is the Hippodromos (or race-course), as it is called, and other buildings
18
near it, and reaching to the Canobic canal. After passing
through the Hippodromos is the Nicopolis, which contains
buildings fronting the sea not less numerous than a city. It is
30 stadia distant from Alexandreia. Augustus Cæsar distinguished this place, because it was here that he defeated Antony
and his party of adherents. He took the city at the first onset,
and compelled Antony to put himself to death, but Cleopatra to
surrender herself alive. A short time afterwards, however,
she also put an end to her life secretly, in prison, by the bite
of an asp, or (for there are two accounts) by the application
of a poisonous ointment. Thus the empire of the Lagidæ,
which had subsisted many years, was dissolved.
[
11]
Alexander was succeeded by Ptolemy the son of Lagus,
the son of Lagus by Philadelphus, Philadelphus by Euergetes;
next succeeded Philopator the lover
19 of Agathocleia, then
Epiphanes, afterwards Philometor, the son (thus far) always
succeeding the father. But Philometor was succeeded by his
brother, the second Euergetes, who was also called Physcon.
He was succeeded by Ptolemy surnamed Lathurus, Lathurus
by Auletes of our time, who was the father of Cleopatra. All
these kings, after the third Ptolemy, were corrupted by luxury and effeminacy, and the affairs of government were very
badly administered by them; but worst of all by the fourth,
the seventh, and the last (Ptolemy), Auletes (or the Piper),
who, besides other deeds of shamelessness, acted the piper;
indeed he gloried so much in the practice, that he scrupled
not to appoint trials of skill in his palace; on which occasions he presented himself as a competitor with other rivals.
He was deposed by the Alexandrines; and of his three daughters, one, the eldest, who was legitimate, they proclaimed
queen; but his two sons, who were infants, were absolutely
excluded from the succession.
As a husband for the daughter established on the throne,
the Alexandrines invited one Cybiosactes from Syria, who
pretended to be descended from the Syrian kings. The queen
after a few days, unable to endure his coarseness and vulgarity, rid herself of him by causing him to be strangled. She
afterwards married Archelaus, who also pretended to be the
son of Mithridates Eupator, but he was really the son of that
Archelaus
20 who carried on war against Sylla, and was afterwards honourably treated by the Romans. He was grandfather of the last king of Cappadocia in our time, and priest
of Comana in Pontus.
21 He was then (at the time we are
speaking of) the guest of Gabinius, and intended to accompany him in an expedition against the Parthians,
22 but unknown to Gabinius, he was conducted away by some (friends)
to the queen, and declared king.
At this time Pompey the Great entertained Auletes as
his guest on his arrival at Rome, and recommended him to
the senate, negotiated his return, and contrived the execution of most of the deputies, in number a hundred, who had
undertaken to appear against him: at their head was Dion
the academic philosopher.
Ptolemy (Auletes) on being restored by Gabinius, put to
death both Archelaus and his daughter;
23 but not long after
24
he was reinstated in his kingdom, he died a natural death,
leaving two sons and two daughters, the eldest of whom was
Cleopatra.
The Alexandrines declared as sovereigns the eldest son
and Cleopatra. But the adherents of the son excited a se-
dition, and banished Cleopatra, who retired with her sister
into Syria.
25
It was about this time that Pompey the Great, in his flight
from Palæ-pharsalus,
26 came to Pelusium and Mount Casium.
He was treacherously slain by the king's party. When Cæsar
arrived, he put the young prince to death, and sending for
Cleopatra from her place of exile, appointed her queen of
Egypt, declaring also her surviving brother, who was very
young, and herself joint sovereigns.
After the death of Cæsar and the battle at Pharsalia, Antony passed over into Asia; he raised Cleopatra to the highest
dignity, made her his wife, and had children by her. He
was present with her at the battle of Actium, and accompanied her in her flight. Augustus Cæsar pursued them, put
an end to their power, and rescued Egypt from misgovernment and revelry.
[
12]
At present Egypt is a (Roman) province, pays considerable tribute, and is well governed by prudent persons, who
are sent there in succession. The governor thus sent out has
the rank of king. Subordinate to him is the administrator of
justice, who is the supreme judge in many causes. There is
another officer, who is called Idiologus, whose business it is to
inquire into property for which there is no claimant, and
which of right falls to Cæsar. These are accompanied by
Cæsar's freedmen and stewards, who are intrusted with affairs
of more or less importance.
Three legions are stationed in Egypt, one in the city, the
rest in the country. Besides these there are also nine Roman
cohorts, three quartered in the city, three on the borders of
Ethiopia in Syene, as a guard to that tract, and three in other
parts of the country. There are also three bodies of cavalry
distributed in convenient posts.
Of the native magistrates in the cities, the first is the expounder of the law, who is dressed in scarlet; he receives the
customary honours of the country, and has the care of providing what is necessary for the city. The second is the writer of
records, the third is the chief judge. The fourth is the commander of the night guard. These magistrates existed in the
time of the kings, but in consequence of the bad administration
of affairs by the latter, the prosperity of the city was ruined by
licentiousness. Polybius expresses his indignation at the state
of things when lie was there: he describes the inhabitants of
the city to be composed of three classes; the (first) Egyptians
and natives, acute but indifferent citizens, and meddling with
civil affairs. Tile second, the mercenaries, a numerous and undisciplined body ; for it was an ancient custom to maintain
foreign soldiers, who, from the worthlessness of their sovereigns,
knew better how to govern than to obey. The third were
the Alexandrines, who, for the same reason, were not orderly
citizens;
27 but still they were better than the mercenaries, for
although they were a mixed race, yet being of Greek origin,
they retained the customs common to the Greeks. But this
class was extinct nearly about the time of Euergetes Physcon,
in whose reign Polybius came to Alexandreia. For Physcon,
being distressed by factions, frequently exposed the multitude
to the attacks of the soldiery, and thus destroyed them. By
such a state of things in the city the words of the poet
(says Polybius) were verified:
“‘The way to Egypt is long and vexatious.’
28”
[
13]
Such then, if not worse, was the condition of the city
under the last kings. The Romans, as far as they were able,
corrected, as I have said, many abuses, and established an
orderly government, by appointing vice-governors, nomarchs,
and ethnarchs, whose business it was to superintend affairs
of minor importance.
The greatest advantage which the city possesses arises from
its being the only place in all Egypt well situated by nature
for communication with the sea by its excellent harbour, and
with the land by the river, by means of which everything is
easily transported and collected together into this city, which
is the greatest mart in the habitable world.
These may be said to be the superior excellencies of the
city. Cicero, in one of his orations,
29 in speaking of the revenues of Egypt, states that an annual tribute of 12,500 talents
was paid to (Ptolemy) Auletes, the father of Cleopatra. If
then a king, who administered his government in the worst
possible manner, and with the greatest negligence, obtained
so large a revenue, what must we suppose it to be at present,
when affairs are administered with great care, and when the
commerce with India and with Troglodytica has been so
greatly increased ? For formerly not even twenty vessels
ventured to navigate the Arabian Gulf, or advance to the
smallest distance beyond the straits at its mouth; but now
large fleets are despatched as far as India and the extremities
of Ethiopia, from which places the most valuable freights are
brought to Egypt, and are thence exported to other parts, so
that a double amount of custom is collected, arising from imports on the one hand, and from exports on the other. The
most expensive description of goods is charged with the heaviest
impost; for in fact Alexandreia has a monopoly of trade, and is
almost the only receptacle for this kind of merchandise and
place of supply for foreigners. The natural convenience of
the situation is still more apparent to persons travelling through
the country, and particularly along the coast which commences at the Catabathmus; for to this place Egypt extends.
Next to it is Cyrenæa, and the neighboring barbarians,
the Marmaridæ.
[
14]
From the Catabathmus
30 to Parætonium is a run of 900
stadia for a vessel in a direct course. There is a city and a
large harbour of about 40 stadia in extent, by some called the
city Parætonium,
31 by others, Ammonia. Between these is
the village of the Egyptians, and the promontory Ænesisphyra, and the Tyndareian rocks, four small islands, with a
harbour; then Drepanum a promontory, and Ænesippeia an
island with a harbour, and Apis a village, from which to
Parætonium are 100 stadia; [from thence] to the temple of
Ammon is a journey of five days. From Parætonium to Alexandreia are about 1300 stadia. Between these are, first, a
promontory of white earth, called Leuce-Acte, then Phœnicus
a harbour, and Pnigeus a village; after these the island Sidonia
(Pedonia ?) with a harbour; then a little further off from the
sea, Antiphræ. The whole of this country produces no wine
of a good quality, and the earthen jars contain more sea-water
than wine, which is called Libyan;
32 this and beer are the
principal beverage of the common people of Alexandreia.
Antiphræ in particular was a subject of ridicule (on account of
its bad wine).
Next is the harbour Derrhis,
33 which has its name from an
adjacent black rock, resembling
δέῤῥις, a hide. The neighbouring place is called Zephyrium. Then follows another
harbour, Leucaspis (the white shield), and many others;
then the Cynossema (or dog's monument); then Taposeiris,
not that situated upon the sea; here is held a great public festival. There is another Taposeiris,
34 situated at a considerable
distance beyond the city (Alexandreia). Near this, and close
to the sea, is a rocky spot, which is the resort of great numbers of people at all seasons of the year, for the purpose of
feasting and amusement. Next is Plinthine,
35 and the village
of Nicium, and Cherronesus a fortress, distant from Alexandreia and the Necropolis about 70 stadia.
The lake Mareia, which extends as far as this place, is more
than 150 stadia in breadth, and in length less than 300 stadia.
It contains eight islands. The whole country about it is well
inhabited. Good wine also is produced here, and in such
quantity that the Mareotic wine is racked in order that it may
be kept to be old.
36
[
15]
The byblus
37 and the Egyptian bean grow in the
marshes and lakes; from the latter the ciborium is made.
38
The stalks of the bean are nearly of equal height, and grow to
the length of ten feet. The byblus is a bare stem, with a tuft
on the top. But the bean puts out leaves and flowers in many
parts, and bears a fruit similar to our bean, differing only in
size and taste. The bean-grounds present an agreeable sight,
and afford amusement to those who are disposed to recreate
themselves with convivial feasts. These entertainments take
place in boats with cabins; they enter the thickest part of the
plantation, where they are overshadowed with the leaves,
which are very large, and serve for drinking-cups and dishes,
having a hollow which fits them for the purpose. They are
found in great abundance in the shops in Alexandreia, where
they are used as vessels. One of the sources of land revenue
is the sale of these leaves. Such then is the nature of this
bean.
The byblus does not grow here in great abundance, for it is
not cultivated. But it abounds in the lower parts of the
Delta. There is one sort inferior to the other.
39 The best is
the hieratica. Some persons intending to augment the revenue,
employed in this case a method which the Jews practised
with the palm, especially the caryotic, and with the balsamum.
40 In many places it is not allowed to be cultivated, and
the price is enhanced by its rarity: the revenue is indeed
thus increased, but the general consumption [of the article] is
injured.
[
16]
On passing through the Canobic gate of the city, on
the right hand is the canal leading to Canobus, close to the
lake. They sail by this canal to Schedia, to the great river,
and to Canobus, but the first place at which they arrive is
Eleusis. This is a settlement near Alexandreia and Nicopolis, and situated on the Canobic canal. It has houses of
entertainment which command beautiful views, and hither
resort men and women who are inclined to indulge in noisy
revelry, a prelude to Canobic life, and the dissolute manners
of the people of Canobus.
At a little distance from Eleusis, on the right hand, is the
canal leading towards Schedia. Schedia is distant four schoeni
from Alexandreia. It is a suburb of the city, and has a station for the vessels with cabins, which convey the governors
when they visit the upper parts of the country. Here is
collected the duty on merchandise, as it is transported up
or down the river. For this purpose a bridge of boats is laid
across the river, and from this kind of bridge the place has
the name of Schedia.
Next after the canal leading to Schedia, the navigation
thence to Canobus is parallel to the sea-coast, extending from
Pharos to the Canobic mouth. For between the sea and the
canal, is a narrow band of ground, on which is situated the
smaller Taposeiris, which lies next after Nicopolis, and Zephyrium a promontory, on which is a small temple dedicated to
Venus Arsinoë.
Anciently, it is said, a city called Thonis stood there, which
bears the name of the king, who entertained as his guests
Menelaus and Helen. The poet thus speaks of the drugs
which were given to Helen,
“‘the potent drugs, which Polydamna, the wife of Thon, gave to Helen.’
41”
[
17]
Canobus is a city, distant by land from Alexandreia
120 stadia. It has its name from Canobus, the pilot of Menelaus, who died there. It contains the temple of Sarapis,
held in great veneration, and celebrated for the cure of diseases; persons even of the highest rank confide in them, and
sleep there themselves on their own account, or others for
them. Some persons record the cures, and others the veracity of the oracles which are delivered there. But remarkable above everything else is the multitude of persons who
resort to the public festivals, and come from Alexandreia by
the canal. For day and night there are crowds of men and
women in boats, singing and dancing, without restraint, and
with the utmost licentiousness. Others, at Canobus itself,
keep hostelries situated on the banks of the canal, which are
well adapted for such kind of diversion and revelry.
[
18]
Next to Canobus is Heracleium, in which is a temple
of Hercules; then follows the Canobic mouth,
42 and the commencement of the Delta.
On the right of the Canobic canal is the Menelaïte Nome,
so called from the brother of the first Ptolemy, but certainly
not from the hero (Menelaus), as some writers assert, among
whom is Artemidorus.
Next to the Canobic mouth is the Bolbitine, then the Sebennytic, and the Phatnitic, which is the third in magnitude compared with the first two, which form the boundaries of the
Delta. For it branches off into the interior, not far from the
vertex of the Delta. The Mendesian is very near the Phatnitic mouth; next is the Tanitic, and lastly the Pelusiac mouth.
There are others, which are of little consequence, between
these, since they are as it were false mouths.
The mouths have entrances which are not capable of admitting large vessels, but lighters only, on account of the shallows and marshes. The Canobic mart is principally used as
a mart for merchandise, the harbours at Alexandreia being
closed, as I have said before.
After the Bolbitine mouth there runs out to a great distance
a low and sandy promontory. It is called Agnu-ceras (or
Willow Point). Then follows the watch-tower of Perseus,
43
and the fortress of the Milesians. For in the time of Psammitichus, and when Cyaxares was king of the Medes, some
Milesians with 30 vessels steered into the Bolbitine mouth, disembarked there, and built the above-mentioned fortress.
Some time afterwards they sailed up to the Saitic Nome. and
having conquered Inarus in an engagement at sea, founded
the city Naucratis, not far above Schedia.
Next after the fortress of the Milesians, in proceeding towards the Sebennytic mouth, are lakes, one of which is called
Butice, from the city Butus; then the city Sebennytice and
Sais, the capital of the lower country; here Minerva is worshipped. In the temple there of this goddess, is the tomb of
Psammitichus. Near Butus is Hermopolis, situated in an
island, and at Butus is an oracle of Latona.
[
19]
In the interior above the Sebennytic and Phatnitic
mouths is Xoïs, both an island and a city in the Sebennytic
Nome. There are also Hermopolis, Lycopolis, and Mendes,
where Pan
44 is worshipped, and of animals a goat. Here, according to Pindar, goats have intercourse with women.
Near Mendes are Diospolis, and the lakes about it, and
Leontopolis; then further on, the city Busiris,
45 in the Busirite
Nome, and Cynospolis.
Eratosthenes says, ‘That to repel strangers is a practice
common to all barbarians, but that this charge against the
Egyptians is derived from fabulous stories related of (one)
Busiris and his people in the Busirite Nome, as some persons in later times were disposed to charge the inhabitants of
this place with inhospitality, although in truth there was
neither king nor tyrant of the name of Busiris: that besides
there was a common saying,
“'The way to Egypt is long and vexatious,'
46”
which originated in the want of harbours, and in the
state of the harbour at Pharos, which was not of free access, but watched and guarded by herdsmen, who were robbers, and attacked those who attempted to sail into it. The
Carthaginians drown [he says] any strangers who sail past, on
their voyage to Sardinia or to the Pillars. Hence much of
what is related of the parts towards the west is discredited.
The Persians also were treacherous guides, and conducted the
ambassadors along circuitous and difficult ways.’
[
20]
Contiguous to the Busirite Nome are the Athribite Nome
and the city Athribis; next the Prosopite Nome, in which
latter is Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus). Above the
Mendesian and the Tanitic mouths are a large lake, and the
Mendesian and Leontopolite Nomes, and a city of Aphrodite
(or Venus) and the Pharbetite Nome. Then follows the
Tanitic, which some call the Saitic mouth, and the Tanite
Nome,
47 and in it Tanis a large city.
[
21]
Between the Tanitic and the Pelusiac mouths are lakes
and large and continuous marshes, among which are numerous villages. Pelusium itself has many marshes lying around
it, which some call Barathra (or water holes), and swamps.
It is situated at a distance of more than 20 stadia from the
sea. The circumference of the wall is 20 stadia. It has its
name from the mud (
πηλοῦ) of the swamps.
48 On this quarter
Egypt is difficult of access, i. e. from the eastern side towards
Phœnicia and Judæa, and on the side of Arabia Nabatæa,
which is contiguous; through which countries the road to
Egypt lies.
The country between the Nile and the Arabian Gulf is
Arabia, and at its extremity is situated Pelusium. But the
whole is desert, and not passable by an army. The isthmus
between Pelusium and the recess of the Arabian Gulf near
Heroopolis is 1000 stadia; but, according to Poseidonius, less
than 1500 stadia in extent. Besides its being sandy and
without water, it abounds with reptiles, which burrow in the
sand.
[
22]
In sailing up the river from Schedia to Memphis,
49 on
the right hand, are a great many villages extending as far as
the lake Mareia, among which is that called the village of
Chabrias. Upon the river is Hermopolis, then Gynæcopolis,
and the Gynæcopolite Nome; next Momemphis and the Momemphite Nome. Between these places are many canals,
which empty themselves into the lake Mareotis. The Momemphitæ worship Venus, and a sacred cow is kept there, as
Apis is maintained at Memphis, and Mneyis
50 at Heliopolis.
These animals are regarded as gods, but there are other
places, and these are numerous, both in the Delta and beyond it, in which a bull or a cow is maintained, which are not
regarded as gods, but only as sacred.
[
23]
Above Momemphis are two nitre mines, which furnish
nitre in large quantities, and the Nitriote Nome. Here Sarapis is worshipped, and they are the only people in Egypt
who sacrifice a sheep. In this nome and near this place is a
city called Menelaus. On the left hand in the Delta, upon
the river, is Naucratis. At the distance of two schœni from
the river is Saïs,
51 and a little above it the asylum of Osiris,
in which it is said Osiris is buried. This, however, is questioned by many persons, and particularly by the inhabitants
of Philæ, which is situated above Syene and Elephantina.
These people tell this tale, that Isis placed coffins of Osiris in
various places, but that one only contained the body of Osiris,
so that no one knew which of them it was; and that she did
this with the intention of concealing it from Typhon,
52 who
might come and cast the body out of its place of deposit.
[
24]
This is the description of the country from Alexandreia to the vertex of the Delta.
Artemidorus says, that the navigation up the river is 28
schœni, which amount to 840 stadia, reckoning the schœnus
at 30 stadia. When we ourselves sailed up the river, schoeni
of different measures were used at different places in giving
the distances, so that sometimes the received schœnus was a
measure of 40 stadia and even more. That the measure of
the schœnus was unsettled among the Egyptians, Artemidorus himself shows in a subsequent place. In reckoning the
distance from Memphis to Thebais, he says that each schœnus
consists of 120 stadia, and from the Thebaïs to Syene of 60
stadia. In sailing up from Pelusium to the same vertex of
the Delta, is a distance, he says, of 25 schœni, or 750 stadia,
and he employs the same measure.
On setting out from Pelusium, the first canal met with is
that which fills the lakes, ‘near the marshes,’ as they are
called. There are two of these lakes, situated upon the left
hand of the great stream above Pelusium in Arabia. He mentions other lakes also, and canals in the same parts beyond
the Delta.
The Sethroïte Nome extends along one of the two lakes.
He reckons this as one of the ten nomes in the Delta. There
are two other canals, which discharge themselves into the
same lakes.
[
25]
There is another canal also, which empties itself into
the Red Sea, or Arabian Gulf, near the city Arsinoë, which
some call Cleopatris.
53 It flows through the Bitter Lakes, as
they are called, which were bitter formerly, but when the
above-mentioned canal was cut, the bitter quality was altered
by their junction with the river, and at present they contain
excellent fish, and abound with aquatic birds.
The canal was first cut by Sesostris before the Trojan
times, but according to other writers, by the son of
54 Psammitichus, who only began the work, and afterwards died; lastly,
Darius the First succeeded to the completion of the undertaking, but he desisted from continuing the work, when it
was nearly finished, influenced by an erroneous opinion that
the level of the Red Sea was higher than Egypt, and that if
the whole of the intervening isthmus were cut through, the
country would be overflowed by the sea. The Ptolemaic
kings however did cut through it, and placed locks upon the
canal,
55 so that they sailed, when they pleased, without obstruction into the outer sea, and back again [into the canal].
We have spoken of the surfaces of bodies of water in
the first part of this work.
56
[
26]
Near Arsinoë are situated in the recess of the Arabian
Gulf towards Egypt, Heroopolis and Cleopatris; harbours,
suburbs, many canals, and lakes are also near. There also
is the Phagroriopolite Nome, and the city Phagroriopolis. The
canal, which empties itself into the Red Sea, begins at the
village Phaccusa, to which the village of Philon is contiguous.
The canal is 100 cubits broad, and its depth sufficient to float
a vessel of large burden. These places are near the apex of
the Delta.
[
27]
There also are the city Bubastus
57 and the Bubastite
Nome, and above it the Heliopolite Nome. There too is Heliopolis, situated upon a large mound. It contains a temple
of the sun, and the ox Mneyis, which is kept in a sanctuary,
and is regarded by the inhabitants as a god, as Apis is regarded by the people of Memphis. In front of the mound
are lakes, into which the neighbouring canal discharges itself.
At present the city is entirely deserted. It has an ancient
temple constructed after the Egyptian manner, bearing many
proofs of the madness and sacrilegious acts of Cambyses, who
did very great injury to the temples, partly by fire, partly by
violence, mutilating [in some] cases, and applying fire [in
others]. In this manner he injured the obelisks, two of which,
that were not entirely spoilt, were transported to Rome.
58
There are others both here and at Thebes, the present Diospolis, some of which are standing, much corroded by fire,
and others lying on the ground.
[
28]
The plan of the temples is as follows.
At the entrance into the temenus is a paved floor, in
breadth about a plethrum, or even less; its length is three
or four times as great, and in some instances even more. This
part is called Dromos, and is mentioned by Callimachus,
“‘this is the Dromos, sacred to Anubis.’”
Throughout the whole length on each side are placed stone
sphinxes, at the distance of 20 cubits or a little more from
each other, so that there is one row of sphinxes on the right
hand, and another on the left. Next after the sphinxes is a
large propylon, then on proceeding further, another propylon,
and then another. Neither the number of the propyla nor of
the sphinxes is determined by any rule. They are different
in different temples, as well as the length and breadth of the
Dromi.
Next to the propyla is the naos, which has a large and
considerable pronaos; the sanctuary in proportion; there is no
statue, at least not in human shape, but a representation of
some of the brute animals. On each side of the pronaos project what are called the wings. These are two walls of equal
height with the naos. At first the distance between them is
a little more than the breadth of the foundation of the naos.
59
As you proceed onwards, the [base] lines incline towards one
another till they approach within 50 or 60 cubits. These
walls have large sculptured figures, very much like the Tyrrhenian (Etruscan) and very ancient works among the Greeks.
There is also a building with a great number of pillars, as
at Memphis, in the barbaric style; for, except the magnitude
and number and rows of pillars, there is nothing pleasing nor
easily described,
60 but rather a display of labour wasted.
[
29]
At Heliopolis we saw large buildings in which the
priests lived. For it is said that anciently this was the
principal residence of the priests, who studied philosophy and
astronomy. But there are no longer either such a body of
persons or such pursuits. No one was pointed out to us on
the spot, as presiding over these studies, but only persons who
performed sacred rites, and who explained to strangers [the
peculiarities of] the temples.
A person of the name of Chæremon accompanied the governor, Ælius Gallus, in his journey from Alexandreia into
Egypt, and pretended to some knowledge of this kind, but he
was generally ridiculed for his boasting and ignorance. The
houses of the priests, and the residences of Plato and of Eudoxus, were shown to us. Eudoxus came here with Plato, and,
according to some writers, lived thirteen years in the society of
the priests. For the latter were distinguished for their knowledge of the heavenly bodies, but were mysterious and uncommunicative, yet after a time were prevailed upon by courtesy
to acquaint them with some of the principles of their science,
but the barbarians concealed the greater part of them. They
had, however, communicated the knowledge of the additional
portions of the day and night, in the space of 365 days, necessary to complete the annual period; and, at that time, the
length of the year was unknown to the Greeks, as were many
other things, until later astronomers received them from the
persons who translated the records of the priests into the
Greek language, and even now derive knowledge from their
writings and from those of the Chaldeans.
61
[
30]
After Heliopolis is the ‘Nile above the Delta.’ The
country on the right hand, as you go up the Nile, is called
Libya, as well as that near Alexandreia and the lake Mareotis;
the country on the left hand is called Arabia. The territory
belonging to Heliopolis is in Arabia, but the city Cercesura is
in Libya, and situated opposite to the observatory of Eudoxus.
For there is shown an observing station in front of Heliopolis,
as there is in front of Cnidus, where Eudoxus marked certain
motions of the heavenly bodies. This is the Letopolite Nome.
In sailing up the river we meet with Babylon, a strong
fortress, built by some Babylonians who had taken refuge
there, and had obtained permission from the kings to establish
a settlement in that place. At present it is an encampment
for one of the three legions which garrison Egypt. There is
a mountainous ridge, which extends from the encampment as
far as the Nile. At this ridge are wheels and screws, by
which water is raised from the river, and one hundred and
fifty prisoners are [thus] employed.
The pyramids on the other side [of the river] at Memphis
may be clearly discerned from this place, for they are not far
off.
[
31]
Memphis itself also, the residence of the kings of Egypt,
is near, being only three schœni distant from the Delta. It
contains temples, among which is that of Apis, who is the
same as Osiris. Here the ox Apis is kept in a sort of sanctuary, and is held, as I have said, to be a god. The forehead
and some other small parts of its body are white; the other
parts are black. By these marks the fitness of the successor
is always determined, when the animal to which they pay these
honours dies. In front of the sanctuary is a court, in which
there is another sanctuary for the dam of Apis. . Into this
court the Apis is let loose at times, particularly for the purpose of exhibiting him to strangers. He is seen through a
door in the sanctuary, and he is permitted to be seen also out
of it. After he has frisked about a little in the court, he is
taken back to his own stall.
The temple of Apis is near the Hephæsteium (or temple
of Vulcan); the Hephæsteium
62 itself is very sumptuously constructed, both as regards the size of the naos and in other respects. In front of the Dromos is a colossal figure consisting
of a single stone. It is usual to celebrate bull-fights in this
Dromos; the bulls are bred expressly for this purpose, like
horses. They are let loose, and fight with one another, the
conqueror receiving a prize.
At Memphis also there is a temple of Venus, who is accounted a Grecian deity. But some say that it is a temple dedicated to Selene, or the moon.
63
[
32]
There is also a temple of Sarapis, situated in a very sandy
spot, where the sand is accumulated in masses by the wind.
Some of the sphinxes which we saw were buried in this
sand up to the head, and one half only of others was visible.
Hence we may conceive the danger, should any one, in his
way to the temple, be surprised by a [sand] storm.
The city is large and populous; it ranks next to Alexandreia,
and, like that place, is inhabited by mixed races of people.
There are lakes in front of the city and of the palaces, which
at present are in ruins and deserted. They are situated upon
an eminence, and extend as far as the lower part of the
city.
Close to this place are a grove and a lake.
[
33]
At the distance of 40 stadia from Memphis is a brow
of a hill, on which are many pyramids, the tombs of the
kings.
64 Three of them are considerable. Two of these are
reckoned among the seven wonders [of the world]. They
are a stadium in height, and of a quadrangular shape. Their
height somewhat exceeds the length of each of the sides.
65
One pyramid is a little larger than the other. At a moderate
height in one of the sides
66 is a stone, which may be taken out;
when that is removed, there is an oblique passage [leading]
to the tomb. They are near each other, and upon the same
level. Farther on, at a greater height of the mountain, is the
third pyramid, which is much less than the two others, but
constructed at much greater expense; for from the found-
ation nearly as far as the middle, it is built of black stone.
Mortars are made of this stone, which is brought from a
great distance; for it comes from the mountains of Ethiopia, and being hard and difficult to be worked, the labour
is attended with great expense. It is said to be the tomb
of a courtesan, built by her lovers, and whose name, according to Sappho the poetess, was Doriche. She was the
mistress of her brother Charaxus, who traded to the port of
Naucratis with wine of Lesbos. Others call her Rhodopis.
67
A story is told of her, that, when she was bathing, an eagle
snatched one of her sandals from the hands of her female attendant and carried it to Memphis; the eagle soaring over
the head of the king, who was administering justice at the
time, let the sandal fall into his lap. The king, struck with
the shape of the sandal, and the singularity of the accident,
sent over the country to discover the woman to whom it belonged. She was found in the city of Naucratis, and brought
to the king, who made her his wife. At her death she was
honoured with the above-mentioned tomb.
[
34]
One extraordinary thing which I saw at the pyramids
must not be omitted. Heaps of stones from the quarries lie
in front of the pyramids. Among these are found pieces
which in shape and size resemble lentils.
68 Some contain
substances like grains half peeled. These, it is said, are
the remnants of the workmen's food converted into stone;
which is not probable.
69 For at home in our country (Amasia), there is a long hill in a plain, which abounds with
pebbles of a porus stone,
70 resembling lentils. The pebbles
of the sea-shore and of rivers suggest somewhat of the same
difficulty [respecting their origin]; some explanation may
indeed be found in the motion [to which these are subject] in
flowing waters, but the investigation of the above fact presents more difficulty. I have said elsewhere,
71 that in sight of
the pyramids, on the other side in Arabia, and near the stone
quarries from which they are built, is a very rocky mountain,
called the Trojan mountain; beneath it there are caves, and
near the caves and the river a village called Troy, an ancient
settlement of the captive Trojans who had accompanied
Menelaus and settled there.
72
[
35]
Next to Memphis is the city Acanthus, situated also in
Libya, and the temple of Osiris, and the grove of the Thebaïc acantha, from which gum is procured. Next is the Aphroditopolite Nome, and the city in Arabia of the same name,
where is kept a white cow, considered sacred. Then follows
the Heracleote Nome, in a large island, near which is the
canal on the right hand, which leads into Libya, in the direction of the Arsinoïte Nome; so that the canal has two entrances,
a part of the island on one side being interposed between
them.
73 This nome is the most considerable of all in appearance, natural properties, and embellishment. It is the only
nome planted with large, full-grown olive trees, which bear
fine fruit. If the produce were carefully collected, good oil
might be obtained; but this care is neglected, and although
a large quantity of oil is obtained, yet it has a disagreeable
smell. (The rest of Egypt is without the olive tree, except
the gardens near Alexandreia, which are planted with olive
trees, but do not furnish any oil.) It produces wine in abundance, corn, pulse, and a great variety of other grains. It has
also the remarkable lake Mœris, which in extent is a sea, and
the colour of its waters resembles that of the sea. Its borders
also are like the sea-shore, so that we may make the same
suppositions respecting these as about the country near Ammon. For they are not very far distant from one another
and from Parætonium; and we may conjecture from a multitude of proofs, that as the temple of Ammon was once situated
upon the sea, so this tract of country also bordered on the sea
at some former period. But Lower Egypt and the country
as far as the Lake Sirbonis were sea, and confluent perhaps
with the Red Sea at Heroopolis, and the Ælanitic recess of
the gulf.
[
36]
We have treated these subjects at length in the First
Book of the Geography. At present we shall make a few
remarks on the operations of nature and of Providence conjointly.—On the operations of nature, that all things converge
to a point, namely, the centre of the whole, and assume a
spherical shape around it. The earth is the densest body, and
nearer the centre than all others: the less dense and next to
it is water; but both land and water are spheres, the first
solid, the second hollow, containing the earth within it.—On
the operations of Providence, that it has exercised a will, is
disposed to variety, and is the artificer of innumerable works.
In the first rank, as greatly surpassing all the rest, is the
generation of animals, of which the most excellent are gods
and men, for whose sake the rest were formed. To the gods
Providence assigned heaven; and the earth to men, the extreme parts of the world; for the extreme parts of the sphere
are the centre and the circumference. But since water encompasses the earth, and man is not an aquatic, but a land-animal, living in the air, and requiring much light, Providence formed many eminences and cavities in the earth, so
that these cavities should receive the whole or a great part of
the water which covers the land beneath it; and that the eminences should rise and conceal the water beneath them, except
so much as was necessary for the use of the human race, the
animals and plants about it.
But as all things are in constant motion, and undergo great
changes, (for it is not possible that things of such a nature, so
numerous and vast, could be otherwise regulated in the world,)
we must not suppose the earth or the water always to continue in this state, so as to retain perpetually the same bulk,
without increase or diminution, or that each preserves the
same fixed place, particularly as the reciprocal change of one
into the other is most consonant to nature from their proximity; but that much of the land is changed into water, and
a great portion of water becomes land, just as we observe great
differences in the earth itself. For one kind of earth crumbles
easily, another is solid and rocky, and contains iron; and so
of others. There is also a variety in the quality of water;
for some waters are saline, others sweet and potable, others
medicinal, and either salutary or noxious, others cold or hot
Is it therefore surprising that some parts of the earth which
are now inhabited should formerly have been occupied by
sea, and that what are now seas should formerly have been
inhabited land ? so also fountains once existing have failed,
and others have burst forth; and similarly in the case of rivers
and lakes: again, mountains and plains have been converted
reciprocally one into the other. On this subject I have spoken
before at length,
74 and now let this be said:
[
37]
The lake Mœris, by its magnitude and depth, is able to
sustain the superabundance of water which flows into it at
the time of the rise of the river, without overflowing the inhabited and cultivated parts of the country. On the decrease
of the water of the river, it distributes the excess by the same
canal at each of the mouths; and both the lake and the canal
preserve a remainder, which is used for irrigation. These
are the natural and independent properties of the lake, but in
addition, on both mouths of the canal are placed locks, by
which the engineers store up and distribute the water which
enters or issues from the canal.
We have here also the Labyrinth, a work equal to the
Pyramids, and adjoining to it the tomb of the king who constructed the Labyrinth.
75 After proceeding beyond the first
entrance of the canal about 30 or 40 stadia, there is a table-shaped plain, with a village and a large palace composed of
as many palaces as there were formerly nomes. There are
an equal number of aulæ, surrounded by pillars, and contiguous to one another, all in one line and forming one building,
like a long wall having the aulæ in front of it. The entrances
into the aulæ are opposite to the wall. In front of the entrances there are long and numerous covered ways, with winding passages communicating with each other, so that no
stranger could find his way into the aulæ or out of them without a guide. The (most) surprising circumstance is that the
roofs of these dwellings consist of a single stone each, and
that the covered ways through their whole range were roofed
in the same manner with single slabs of stone of extraordinary
size, without the intermixture of timber or of any other material.
On ascending the roof,—which is not of great height for it
consists only of a single story,—there may be seen a stone-
field, thus composed of stones. Descending again and looking
76
into the aulæ, these may be seen in a line supported by twenty-seven pillars, each consisting of a single stone. The walls also
are constructed of stones not inferior in size to these.
At the end of this building, which occupies more than a
stadium, is the tomb, which is a quadrangular pyramid, each
side of which is about four plethra in length, and of equal
height. The name of the person buried there is Imandes.
77
They built, it is said, this number of aulæ, because it was the
custom for all the nomes to assemble there together according to their rank, with their own priests and priestesses, for
the purpose of performing sacrifices and making offerings to
the gods, and of administering justice in matters of great importance. Each of the nomes was conducted to the aula appointed for it.
[
38]
Sailing along to the distance of 100 stadia, we come to
the city Arsinoë, formerly called Crocodilopolis; for the inhabitants of this nome worship the crocodile. The animal is
accounted sacred, and kept apart by himself in a lake; it is
tame, and gentle to the priests, and is called Suchus. It is
fed with bread, flesh, and wine, which strangers who come
to see it always present. Our host, a distinguished person,
who was our guide in examining what was curious, accompanied us to the lake, and brought from the supper table a
small cake, dressed meat, and a small vessel containing a
mixture of honey and milk. We found the animal lying on
the edge of the lake. The priests went up to it; some of
them opened its mouth, another put the cake into it, then the
meat, and afterwards poured down the honey and milk. The
animal then leaped into the lake, and crossed to the other side.
When another stranger arrived with his offering, the priests
took it, and running round the lake, caught the crocodile, and
gave him what was brought, in the same manner as before.
[
39]
Next after the Arsinoïte and Heracleotic Nomes, is
the city of Hercules, in which the ichneumon is worshipped,
in opposition to the Arsinoïtes, who worship crocodiles;
hence the canal and the lake Mœris is full of these animals,
for they venerate them, and are careful to do them no harm:
but the Heracleotæ worship the ichneumon, which is most destructive both to crocodiles and asps. The ichneumons destroy not only the eggs of the latter, but the animals themselves. The ichneumons are protected by a covering of mud,
in which they roll, and then dry themselves in the sun.
They then seize the asps by the head or tail, and dragging
them into the river, so kill them.
They lie in wait for the crocodiles, when the latter are
basking in the sun with their mouths open; they then drop
into their jaws, and eating through their intestines and belly,
issue out of the dead body.
[
40]
Next follows the Cynopolite Nome and Cynopolis,
where they worship the dog Anubis, and pay certain honours to dogs; a subsistence is there provided for them, as
sacred animals.
On the other side of the river is the city Oxyrynchus,
78 and
a nome of the same name. They worship the oxyrynchus,
and have a temple dedicated to this animal; but all the other
Egyptians worship the oxyrynchus.
79 For all the Egyptians
worship in common certain animals; three among the land
animals, the ox, the dog, and the cat; two among the winged
tribe, the hawk and the ibis; and two of the aquatic animals, the fish lepidotus and the oxyrynchus. There are
also other animals which each people, independently of others,
worship; as the Saïtæ and Thebaïtæ, a sheep; the Latopolitæ, the latus, a fish inhabiting the Nile; the people of
Lycopolis, a wolf; those of Hermopolis,
80 the cynocephalus;
those of Babylon,
81 near Memphis, a cephus, which has the
countenance of a satyr, and in other respects is between a
dog and a bear; it is bred in Ethiopia. The inhabitants
of Thebes worship an eagle; the Leontopolitæ, a lion; the
Mendesians, a male and female goat; the Athribitæ, a shrewmouse; different people worshipping different animals. They
do not, however, assign the same reasons for this difference of
worship.
[
41]
Then follows the Hermopolite Castle, a place where is
collected the toll on merchandise brought down from the
Thebaïs. At this place begins the reckoning by schœni of
sixty stadia each, which is continued to Syene and Elephantina. Next is the Thebaïc Keep, and a canal leading to Tanis.
Then follow Lycopolis, Aphroditopolis, and Panopolis, an old
settlement belonging to masons and weavers of linen.
[
42]
Then follows Ptolemaïs,
82 the largest city in the Thebais, not inferior to Memphis, with a form of government
after the Grecian mode. Above this city is Abydos, where
is the palace of Memnon, constructed in a singular manner,
entirely of stone,
83 and after the plan of the Labyrinth, which
we have described, but not composed of many parts. It has
a fountain situated at a great depth. There is a descent to it
through an arched passage built with single stones, of remarkable size and workmanship.
There is a canal which leads to this place from the great
river. About the canal is a grove of Egyptian acanthus,
dedicated to Apollo. Abydos seems once to have been a large
city, second to Thebes. At present it is a small town. But
if, as they say, Memnon is called Ismandes by the Egyptians,
the Labyrinth might be a Memnonium, and the work of the
same person who constructed those at Abydos and at Thebes;
for in those places, it is said, are some Memnonia. In the
latitude of Abydos is the first Auasis (Oasis) of the three
which are said to be in Africa. It is distant from Abydos a
journey of seven days through a desert. It is an inhabited
place, well supplied with good water and wine, and sufficiently provided with other articles. The second is that near
the lake Mœris. The third is that at the oracle of Ammon:
these are considerable settlements.
[
43]
Having before spoken at length of the temple of Ammon,
we wish to add this only, that in ancient times divination in general and oracles were held in greater esteem than at present.
Now they are greatly neglected ; for the Romans are satisfied
with the oracles of the Sibyl, and with Tyrrhenian divination
by the entrails of animals, the flight of birds, and portentous
appearances. Hence the oracle of Ammon, which was
formerly held in great esteem, is now nearly deserted. This
appears chiefly from the historians who have recorded the
actions of Alexander, adding, indeed, much that has the appearance of flattery, but yet relating what is worthy of credit.
Callisthenes, for instance, says that Alexander was ambitious
of the glory of visiting the oracle, because he knew that
Perseus and Hercules had before performed the journey thither.
He set out from Parætonium, although the south winds were
blowing, and succeeded in his undertaking by vigour and perseverance. When out of his way on the road, he escaped
being overwhelmed in a sand-storm by a fall of rain, and
by the guidance of two crows, which directed his course.
These things are stated by way of flattery, as also what follows: that the priest permitted the king alone to pass into the
temple in his usual dress, whereas the others changed theirs;
that all heard the oracles on the outside of the temple, except
Alexander, who was in the interior of the building; that the
answers were not given, as at Delphi and at Branchidæ, in
words, but chiefly by nods and signs, as in Homer;
“‘the son of Saturn nodded with his sable brows,’
84”
the prophet imitating Jupiter. This, however, the man told
the king, in express terms, that he was the son of Jupiter.
Callisthenes adds, (after the exaggerating style of tragedy,)
that when Apollo had deserted the oracle among the Branchidæ, on the temple being plundered by the Branchidæ (who
espoused the party of the Persians in the time of Xerxes,) and
the spring had failed, it then re-appeared (on the arrival of
Alexander); that the ambassadors also of the Milesians carried back to Memphis numerous answers of the oracle respecting the descent of Alexander from Jupiter, and the future victory which he should obtain at Arbela, the death of Darius,
and the political changes at Lacedæmon. He says also that
the Erythræan Athenais, who resembled the ancient Erythræan Sibyl, had declared the high descent of Alexander.
Such are the accounts of historians.
[
44]
At Abydos Osiris is worshipped; but in the temple of
Osiris no singer, nor player on the pipe, nor on the cithara,
is permitted to perform at the commencement of the ceremonies celebrated in honour of the god, as is usual in rites
celebrated in honour of the other gods. Next to Abydos is
the lesser Diospolis,
85 then the city Tentyra,
86 where the crocodile is held in peculiar abhorrence, and is regarded as the
most odious of all animals. For the other Egyptians, although acquainted with its mischievous disposition, and hostility towards the human race, yet worship it, and abstain
from doing it harm. But the people of Tentyra track and
destroy it in every way. Some however, as they say of the
Psyllians of Cyrenæa, possess a certain natural antipathy to
snakes, and the people of Tentyra have the same dislike to crocodiles, yet they suffer no injury from them, but dive and
cross the river when no other person ventures to do so.
When crocodiles were brought to Rome to be exhibited, they
were attended by some of the Tentyritæ. A reservoir
was made for them with a sort of stage on one of the sides,
to form a basking-place for them on coming out of the
water, and these persons went into the water, drew them in a
net to the place, where they might sun themselves and be exhibited, and then dragged them back again to the reservoir.
The people of Tentyra worship Venus. At the back of the fane
of Venus is a temple of Isis ; then follow what are called the
Typhoneia, and the canal leading to Coptos,
87 a city common
both to the Egyptians and Arabians.
[
45]
Then follows the isthmus, extending to the Red Sea
near Berenice,
88 which has no harbour, but good landing-places,
because the isthmus is conveniently situated. Philadelphus is
said to be the first person that opened, by means of his army,
this road, which had no supply of water, and to have provided
stations.
89 This he did because the navigation of the Red Sea
was difficult, particularly to those who set out from the recess
of the bay. Experience showed the great utility of this plan,
and at present all the Indian, Arabian, and such Ethiopian
merchandise as is imported by the Arabian Gulf is carried to Coptos, which is the mart for such commodities. Not
far from Berenice is Myos Hormus,
90 a city with a naval station
for vessels which navigate this sea; at no great distance from
Coptos is the city of Apollo, so that two cities are the boundaries of the isthmus, one on each side. But at present
Coptos and Myos Hormus are in repute, and they are frequented.
Formerly, the camel-merchants travelled in the night, directing their course by observing the stars, and, like mariners,
carried with them a supply of water. But now watering-places are provided: water is also obtained by digging to a
great depth, and rain-water is found, although rain rarely
falls, which is also collected in reservoirs. It is a journey of
six or seven days.
On this isthmus are mines, in which the emeralds and
other precious stones are found by the Arabians, who dig
deep subterraneous passages.
[
46]
Next to the city of Apollo is Thebes, now called Diospolis,
“‘with her hundred gates, through each of which issue two hundred men,
with horses and chariots,’
91”
according to Homer, who mentions also its wealth;
“‘not all the wealth the palaces of Egyptian Thebes contain.’
92”
Other writers use the same language, and consider Thebes
as the metropolis of Egypt. Vestiges of its magnitude still
exist, which extend 80 stadia in length. There are a great
number of temples, many of which Cambyses mutilated. The
spot is at present occupied by villages. One part of it, in
which is the city, lies in Arabia; another is in the country
on the other side of the river, where is the Memnonium.
Here are two colossal figures near one another, each consisting
of a single stone. One is entire; the upper parts of the
other, from the chair, are fallen down, the effect, it is said,
of an earthquake. It is believed, that once a day a noise as of
a slight blow issues from the part of the statue which remains
in the seat and on its base. When I was at those places with
Ælius Gallus, and numerous friends and soldiers about him,
I heard a noise at the first hour (of the day), but whether
proceeding from the base or from the colossus, or produced
on purpose by some of those standing around the base, I
cannot confidently assert. For from the uncertainty of the
cause, I am disposed to believe anything rather than that
stones disposed in that manner could send forth sound.
Above the Memnonium are tombs of kings in caves, and
hewn out of the stone, about forty in number; they are executed with singular skill, and are worthy of notice. Among
the tombs
93 are obelisks with inscriptions, denoting the wealth
of the kings of that time, and the extent of their empire, as
reaching to the Scythians, Bactrians, Indians, and the present
Ionia; the amount of tribute also, and the number of soldiers,
which composed an army of about a million of men.
The priests there are said to be, for the most part, astronomers and philosophers. The former compute the days, not by
the moon, but by the sun, introducing into the twelve months
of thirty days each five days every year. But in order to
complete the whole year, because there is (annually) an excess
of a part of a day, they form a period from out of whole days
and whole years, the supernumerary portions of which in that
period, when collected together, amount to a day.
94 They
ascribe to Mercury all knowledge of this kind. To Jupiter,
whom they worship above all other deities, a virgin of the
greatest beauty and of the most illustrious family (such persons the Greeks call pallades) is dedicated. She prostitutes
herself with whom she pleases, until the time occurs for the
natural purification of the body; she is afterwards married;
but before her marriage, and after the period of prostitution,
they mourn for her as for one dead.
[
47]
Next after Thebes is the city Hermonthis, in which
both Apollo and Jupiter are worshipped. They also keep an
ox there (for worship).
Next is the city of Crocodiles, the inhabitants of which worship this animal; then Aphroditopolis (the city of Venus),
95
and next to it, Latopolis, where Minerva is worshipped, and
the (fish) Latus; next, the city of Eileithyia, and a temple. In
the country on the other side of the river is Hieraconpolis
(the city of hawks), where a hawk is worshipped; then
Apollonopolis, the inhabitants of which are at war with crocodiles.
[
48]
Syene is a city situated on the borders of Ethiopia
and Egypt. Elephantina is an island in the Nile, at the distance of half a stadium in front of Syene; in this island is a
city with a temple of Cnuphis, and a nilometer like that at
Memphis. The nilometer is a well upon the banks of the Nile,
constructed of close-fitting stones, on which are marked the
greatest, least, and mean risings of the Nile; for the water
in the well and in the river rises and subsides simultaneously.
Upon the wall of the well are lines, which indicate the complete rise of the river, and other degrees of its rising. Those
who examine these marks communicate the result to the public for their information. For it is known long before, by these
marks, and by the time
96 elapsed from the commencement,
what the future rise of the river will be, and notice is given
of it. This information is of service to the husbandmen with
reference to the distribution of the water; for the purpose
also of attending to the embankments, canals, and other things
of this kind. It is of use also to the governors, who fix the
revenue; for the greater the rise of the river, the greater it
is expected will be the revenue.
At Syene there is a well which indicates the summer
solstice, because these places lie under the tropical circle,
97
[and occasions the gnomons to cast no shadows at midday].
98 For on proceeding from the places in our country, in
Greece I mean, towards the south, the sun is there first over
our head, and occasions the gnomons to be without shadows
at noon. When the sun is vertical to us, it must necessarily
cast its rays down wells, however deep they may be, to the
water. For we ourselves stand in a perpendicular position,
and wells are dug perpendicular to the surface.
Here are stationed three Roman cohorts as a guard.
[
49]
A little above Elephantine is the lesser cataract, where
the boatmen exhibit a sort of spectacle to the governors.
The cataract is in the middle of the river, and is formed by a
ridge of rock, the upper part [or commencement] of which is
level, and thus capable of receiving the river, but terminating
in a precipice, where the water dashes down. On each side
towards the land there is a stream, up which is the chief ascent
for vessels. The boatmen sail up by this stream, and, dropping down to the cataract, are impelled with the boat to the
precipice, the crew and the boats escaping unhurt.
A little above the cataract is Philæ, a common settlement, like Elephantina, of Ethiopians and Egyptians, and
equal in size, containing Egyptian temples, where a bird,
which they call hierax, (the hawk,) is worshipped; but it
did not appear to me to resemble in the least the hawks of
our country nor of Egypt, for it was larger, and very different in the marks of its plumage. They said that the bird was
Ethiopian, and is brought from Ethiopia when its predecessor
dies, or before its death. The one shown to us when we were
there was sick and nearly dead.
[
50]
We came from Syene to Philæ in a waggon, through a
very flat country, a distance of about 100 stadia.
99 Along
the whole road on each side we could see, in many places,
very high rocks, round, very smooth, and nearly spherical, of
black hard stone, of which mortars are made: each rested
upon a greater stone, and upon this another: they were like
hermæa.
100 Sometimes these stones consisted of one mass.
The largest was not less than twelve feet in diameter, and
all of them exceeded this size by one half. We crossed over
to the island in a pacton, which is a small boat made of rods,
whence it resembles woven-work. Standing then in the water,
(at the bottom of the boat,) or sitting upon some little planks,
we easily crossed over, with some alarm indeed, but without
good cause for it, as there is no danger if the boat is not overloaded.
[
51]
Throughout the whole of Egypt, the palm tree is of a
bad species, and produces no good edible fruit in the places
about the Delta and Alexandreia; yet the best kind is found
in the Thebais. It is a subject of surprise how countries in
the same latitude as Judæa, and bordering upon the Delta and
Alexandreia, should be so different; for Judæa, in addition to
other kinds of date-palms, produces the caryotic, which is not
inferior to the Babylonian. There are, however, two kinds
of dates in the Thebaïs and in Judæa, the caryotic and
another. The Thebaic is firmer, but the flavour is more
agreeable. There is an island remarkable for producing the
best dates, and it also furnishes the largest revenue to the governors. It was appropriated to the kings, and no private
person had any share in the produce; at present it belongs to
the governors.
[
52]
Herodotus
101 and other writers trifle very much when
they introduce into their histories the marvellous, like (an interlude of) music and song, or some melody; for example, in
asserting that the sources of the Nile are near the numerous islands, at Syene and Elephantina, and that at this spot
the river has an unfathomable depth. In the Nile there
are many islands scattered about, some of which are entirely covered, others in part only, at the time of the rise of
the waters. The very elevated parts are irrigated by means
of screw-pumps.
[
53]
Egypt was from the first disposed to peace, from having resources within itself, and because it was difficult of access to strangers. It was also protected on the north by a
harbourless coast and the Egyptian Sea; on the east and
west by the desert mountains of Libya and Arabia, as I have
said before.
102 The remaining parts towards the south are occupied by Troglodytæ, Blemmyes, Nubæ, and Megabari,
Ethiopians above Syene. These are nomades, and not numerous nor warlike, but accounted so by the ancients, be-
cause frequently, like robbers, they attacked defenceless persons. Neither are the Ethiopians, who extend towards the
south and Meroë, numerous nor collected in a body; for they
inhabit a long, narrow, and winding tract of land on the riverside, such as we have before described; nor are they well
prepared either for war or the pursuit of any other mode of life.
At present the whole country is in the same pacific state,
a proof of which is, that the upper country is sufficiently
guarded by three cohorts, and these not complete. Whenever
the Ethiopians have ventured to attack them, it has been at
the risk of danger to their own country. The rest of the
forces in Egypt are neither very numerous, nor did the Romans ever once employ them collected into one army. For
neither are the Egyptians themselves of a warlike disposition,
nor the surrounding nations, although their numbers are very
large.
Cornelius Gallus, the first governor of the country appointed by (Augustus) Cæsar, attacked the city Heroopolis, which
had revolted,
103 and took it with a small body of men. He
suppressed also in a short time an insurrection in the Thebais,
which originated as to the payment of tribute. At a later period
Petronius resisted, with the soldiers about his person, a mob of
myriads of Alexandrines, who attacked him by throwing stones.
He killed some, and compelled the rest to desist.
We have before
104 related how Ælius Gallus, when he invaded Arabia with a part of the army stationed in Egypt,
exhibited a proof of the unwarlike disposition of the people;
and if Syllæus had not betrayed him, he would have conquered the whole of Arabia Felix.
[
54]
The Ethiopians, emboldened in consequence of a part
of the forces in Egypt being drawn off by Ælius Gallus, who
was engaged in war with the Arabs, invaded the Thebais,
and attacked the garrison, consisting of three cohorts, near
Syene; surprised and took Syene, Elephantina, and Philæ,
by a sudden inroad; enslaved the inhabitants, and threw down
the statues of Cæsar. But Petronius, marching with less than
10,000 infantry and 800 horse against an army of 30,000 men,
first compelled them to retreat to Pselchis, an Ethiopian city.
He then sent deputies to demand restitution of what they had
taken, and the reasons which had induced them to begin the
war. On their alleging that they had been ill treated by the
nomarchs, he answered, that these were not the sovereigns
of the country, but Cæsar. When they desired three days
for consideration, and did nothing which they were bound to
do, Petronius attacked and compelled them to fight. They
soon fled, being badly commanded, and badly armed; for they
carried large shields made of raw hides, and hatchets for offensive weapons; some, however, had pikes, and others swords.
Part of the insurgents were driven into the city, others fled
into the uninhabited country; and such as ventured upon the
passage of the river escaped to a neighbouring island, where
there were not many crocodiles on account of the current.
Among the fugitives, were the generals of Candace, queen of
the Ethiopians in our time, a masculine woman, and who
had lost an eye. Petronius, pursuing them in rafts and ships,
took them all and despatched them immediately to Alexandreia. He then attacked Pselchis
105 and took it. If we add
the number of those who fell in battle to the number of prisoners, few only could have escaped.
From Pselchis Petronius went to Premnis,
106 a strong city,
travelling over the hills of sand, beneath which the army of
Cambyses was overwhelmed by the setting in of a whirlwind.
He took the fortress at the first onset, and afterwards advanced to Napata.
107 This was the royal seat of Candace ; and
her son was there, but she herself was in a neighbouring
stronghold. When she sent ambassadors to treat of peace, and
to offer the restitution of the prisoners brought from Syene,
and the statues, Petronius attacked and took Napata, from
which her son had fled, and then razed it. He made prisoners of
the inhabitants, and returned back again with the booty, as
he judged any farther advance into the country impracticable on account of the roads. He strengthened, however, the
fortifications of Premnis, and having placed a garrison there,
with two years' provisions for four hundred men, returned to
Alexandreia. Some of the prisoners were publicly sold as
booty, and a thousand were sent to Cæsar, who had lately returned from the Cantabrians,
108 others died of various diseases.
In the mean time Candace
109 attacked the garrison with an
army of many thousand men. Petronius came to its assistance, and entering the fortress before the approach of the
enemy, secured the place by many expedients. The enemy
sent ambassadors, but he ordered them to repair to Cæsar:
on their replying, that they did not know who Cæsar was,
nor where they were to find him, Petronius appointed persons
to conduct them to his presence. They arrived at Samos,
where Cæsar was at that time, and from whence he was on
the point of proceeding into Syria, having already despatched
Tiberius into Armenia. The ambassadors obtained all that
they desired, and Cæsar even remitted the tribute which he
had imposed.
CHAPTER II.
IN the preceding part
110 of this work we have spoken at
length of Ethiopia, so that its description may be said to be
included in that of Egypt.
In general, then, the extreme parts of the habitable world
adjacent to the intemperate region, which is not habitable by
reason either of heat or cold, must necessarily be defective
and inferior, in respect to physical advantages, to the temper-
ate region. This is evident from the mode of life of the inhabitants, and their want of what is requisite for the use and
subsistence of man. For the mode of life [of the Ethiopians]
is wretched; they are for the most part naked, and wander
from place to place with their flocks. Their flocks and herds
are small in size, whether sheep, goats, or oxen; the dogs
also, though fierce and quarrelsome, are small.
111 It was perhaps from the diminutive size of these people, that the story
of the Pygmies originated, whom no person, worthy of credit,
has asserted that he himself has seen.
[
2]
They live on millet and barley, from which also a drink
is prepared. They have no oil, but use butter and fat instead.
112 There are no fruits, except the produce of trees in
the royal gardens. Some feed even upon grass, the tender
twigs of trees, the lotus, or the roots of reeds. They live also
upon the flesh and blood of animals, milk, and cheese. They
reverence their kings as gods, who are for the most part shut
up in their palaces.
Their largest royal seat is the city of Meroë, of the same
name as the island. The shape of the island is said to be
that of a shield. Its size is perhaps exaggerated. Its length
is about 3000, and its breadth 1000 stadia. It is very mountainous, and contains great forests. The inhabitants are
nomades, who are partly hunters and partly husbandmen.
There are also mines of copper, iron, gold, and various kinds
of precious stones. It is surrounded on the side of Libya by
great hills of sand, and on that of Arabia by continuous precipices. In the higher parts on the south, it is bounded by
the confluent
113 streams of the rivers Astaboras,
114 Astapus,
115
and Astasobas. On the north is the continuous course of the
Nile to Egypt, with its windings, of which we have spoken
before.
The houses in the cities are formed by interweaving split
pieces of palm wood or of bricks.
116 They have fossil salt, as
in Arabia. Palm, the persea
117 (peach), ebony, and carob
trees are found in abundance. They hunt elephants, lions,
and panthers. There are also serpents, which encounter elephants, and there are many other kinds of wild animals, which
take refuge, from the hotter and parched districts, in watery
and marshy districts.
[
3]
Above Meroë is Psebo,
118 a large lake, containing a well-inhabited island. As the Libyans occupy the western bank
of the Nile, and the Ethiopians the country on the other side
of the river, they thus dispute by turns the possession of the
islands and the banks of the river, one party repulsing the
other, or yielding to the superiority of its opponent.
The Ethiopians use bows of wood four cubits long, and
hardened in the fire. The women also are armed, most of
whom wear in the upper lip a copper ring. They wear sheepskins, without wool; for the sheep have hair like goats. Some
go naked, or wear small skins or girdles of well-woven hair
round the loins.
They regard as God one being who is immortal, the cause
of all things; another who is mortal, a being without a name,
whose nature is not clearly understood.
In general they consider as gods benefactors and royal persons, some of whom are their kings, the common saviours and
guardians of all; others are private persons, esteemed as gods
by those who have individually received benefits from them.
Of those who inhabit the torrid region, some are even supposed not to acknowledge any god, and are said to abhor even
the sun, and to apply opprobrious names to him, when they
behold him rising, because he scorches and tortures them
with his heat; these people take refuge in the marshes.
The inhabitants of Meroë worship Hercules, Pan, and Isis,
besides some other barbaric deity.
119
Some tribes throw the dead into the river; others keep
them in the house, enclosed in hyalus (oriental alabaster ?).
Some bury them around the temples in coffins of baked clay.
They swear an oath by them, which is reverenced as more
sacred than all others.
Kings are appointed from among persons distinguished for
their personal beauty, or by their breeding of cattle, or for
their courage, or their riches.
In Meroë the priests anciently held the highest rank, and
sometimes sent orders even to the king, by a messenger, to put
an end to himself, when they appointed another king in his
place. At last one of their kings abolished this custom, by
going with an armed body to the temple where the golden
shrine is, and slaughtering all the priests.
The following custom exists among the Ethiopians. If a
king is mutilated in any part of the body, those who are
most attached to his person, as attendants, mutilate themselves
in the same manner, and even die with him. Hence the
king is guarded with the utmost care. This will suffice on
the subject of Ethiopia.
[
4]
To what has been said concerning Egypt, we must add
these peculiar products; for instance, the Egyptian bean, as it is
called, from which is obtained the ciborium,
120 and the papyrus,
for it is found here and in India only; the persea (peach)
grows here only, and in Ethiopia; it is a lofty tree, and its
fruit is large and sweet; the sycamine, which produces the
fruit called the sycomorus, or fig-mulberry, for it resembles
a fig, but its flavour is not esteemed. The corsium also
(the root of the Egyptian lotus) grows there, a condiment like
pepper, but a little larger.
There are in the Nile fish in great quantity and of different kinds, having a peculiar and indigenous character. The
best known are the oxyrynchus,
121 and the lepidotus,
122 the latus,
123
the alabes,
124 the coracinus,
125 the chœrus, the phagrorius, called
also the phagrus. Besides these are the silurus, the citharus,
126
the thrissa,
127 the cestreus,
128 the lychnus, the physa, the bous (or
ox), and large shell-fish which emit a sound like that of wailing
The animals peculiar to the country are the ichneumon
and the Egyptian asp, having some properties which those
in other places do not possess. There are two kinds, one a
span in length, whose bite is more suddenly mortal than that
of the other; the second is nearly an orguia
129 in size, according to Nicander. the author of the Theriaca.
Among the birds, are the ibis and the Egyptian hawk,
which, like the cat, is more tame than those elsewhere. The
nycticorax is here peculiar in its character; for with us it is
as large as an eagle, and its cry is harsh; but in Egypt it is
the size of a jay, and has a different note. The tamest animal, however, is the ibis; it resembles a stork in shape and
size. There are two kinds, which differ in colour; one is
like a stork, the other is entirely black. Every street in
Alexandreia is full of them. In some respects they are useful; in others troublesome. They are useful, because they
pick up all sorts of small animals and the offal thrown out
of the butchers' and cooks' shops. They are troublesome,
because they devour everything, are dirty, and with difficulty
prevented from polluting in every way what is clean and
what is not given to them.
[
5]
Herodotus
130 truly relates of the Egyptians, that it is a
practice peculiar to them to knead clay with their hands,
and the dough for making bread with their feet. Caces is a
peculiar kind of bread which restrains fluxes. Kiki (the
castor-oil bean) is a kind of fruit sowed in furrows. An oil
is expressed from it which is used for lamps almost generally
throughout the country, but for anointing the body only by
the poorer sort of people and labourers, both men and women.
The coccina are Egyptian textures made of some plant,
131
woven like those made of rushes, or the palm-tree.
Barley beet is a preparation peculiar to the Egyptians.
It is common among many tribes, but the mode of preparing
it differs in each.
This, however, of all their usages is most to be admired,
that they bring up all children that are born. They circumcise the males, and spay the females, as is the custom also
among the Jews, who are of Egyptian origin, as I said when
I was treating of them.
132
According to Aristobulus, no fishes ascend the Nile from
the sea, except the cestreus, the thrissa, and dolphins, on account of the crocodiles; the dolphin, because it can get the
better of the crocodile; the cestreus, because it is accompanied
by the chœri along the bank, in consequence of some physical
affinity subsisting between them. The crocodiles abstain
from doing any hurt to the chœri, because they are of a
round shape, and have spines on their heads, which are dangerous to them.. The cestreus runs up the river in spring,
when in spawn; and descends a little before the setting
of the pleiad, in great numbers, when about to cast it, at which
time they are taken in shoals, by falling into inclosures (made
for catching them). Such also, we may conjecture, is the
reason why the thrissa is found there.
So much then on the subject of Egypt.
CHAPTER III.
WE shall next describe Africa, which is the remaining
portion of the whole description of the earth.
We have before said much respecting it; but at present I
shall further describe what suits my purpose, and add what
has not been previously mentioned.
133
The writers who have divided the habitable world according to continents, divide it unequally. But a threefold division denotes a division into three equal parts. Africa,
however, wants so much of being a third part of the habitable world, that, even if it were united to Europe, it would
not be equal to Asia; perhaps it is even less than Europe;
in resources it is very much inferior, for a great part of the
inland and maritime country is desert. It is spotted over
with small habitable parts, which are scattered about, and
mostly belonging to nomade tribes. Besides the desert state of
the country, its being a nursery of wild beasts is a hindrance
to settlement in parts which could be inhabited. It comprises also a large part of the torrid zone.
All the sea-coast in our quarter, situated between the Nile
and the Pillars, particularly that which belonged to the Carthaginians, is fertile and inhabited. And even in this tract,
some spots destitute of water intervene, as those about the
Syrtes, the Marmaridæ, and the Catabathmus.
The shape of Africa is that of a right-angled triangle, if we
imagine its figure to be drawn on a plane surface. Its base
is the coast opposite to us, extending from Egypt and the
Nile to Mauretania and the Pillars; at right angles to this
is a side formed by the Nile to Ethiopia, which side we continue to the ocean; the hypothenuse of the right angle is the
whole tract of sea-coast lying between Ethiopia and Mauretania.
As the part situated at the vertex of the above-mentioned
figure, and lying almost entirely under the torrid zone, is inaccessible, we speak of it from conjecture, and therefore cannot say what is the greatest breadth of the country. In a
former
134 part of this work we have said, that the distance proceeding from Alexandreia southwards to Meroë, the royal
seat of the Ethiopians, is about 10,000 stadia; thence in a
straight line to the borders of the torrid zone and the habitable
country, 3000 stadia. The sum, therefore, may be assumed
as the greatest breadth of Africa, which is 13,000 or 14,000
stadia: its length may be a little less than double this sum.
So much then on the subject of Africa in general. I am now
to describe its several parts, beginning from the most celebrated on the west.
[
2]
Here dwell a people called by the Greeks Maurusii, and by
the Romans and the natives Mauri, a populous and flourishing
African nation, situated opposite to Spain, on the other side
of the strait, at the Pillars of Hercules, which we have frequently mentioned before. On proceeding beyond the strait at
the Pillars, with Africa on the left hand, we come to a mountain which the Greeks call Atlas, and the barbarians Dyris.
Thence projects into the sea a point formed by the foot of the
mountain towards the west of Mauretania, and called the Coteis.
135 Near it is a small town, a little above the sea, which the
barbarians call Trinx; Artemidorus, Lynx; and Eratosthenes,
Lixus.
136 It lies on the side of the strait opposite to Gadeira,
137
from which it is separated by a passage of 800 stadia, the
width of the strait at the Pillars between both places. To
the south, near Lixus and the Coteis, is a bay called Emporicus,
138 having upon it Phoenician mercantile settlements. The
whole coast continuous with this bay abounds with them.
Subtracting these bays, and the projections of land in the triangular figure which I have described, the continent may rather
be considered as increasing in magnitude in the direction of
south and east. The mountain which extends through the
middle of Mauretania, from the Coteis to the Syrtes, is itself
inhabited, as well as others running parallel to it, first by the
Maurusii, but deep in the interior of the country by the
largest of the African tribes, called Gætuli.
[
3]
Historians, beginning with the voyage of Ophelas (Apellas ?),
139 have invented a great number of fables respecting the
sea-coast of Africa beyond the Pillars. We have mentioned
them before, and mention them now, requesting our readers
to pardon the introduction of marvellous stories, whenever
we may be compelled to relate anything of the kind, being
unwilling to pass them over entirely in silence, and so in a
manner to mutilate our account of the country.
It is said, that the Sinus Emporicus (or merchants' bay)
has a cave which admits the sea at high tide to the distance
even of seven stadia, and in front of this bay a low and level
tract with an altar of Hercules upon it, which, they say, is
not covered by the tide. This I, of course, consider to be one
of the fictitious stories. Like this is the tale, that on other
bays in the succeeding coast there were ancient settlements
of Tyrians, now abandoned, which consisted of not less than
three hundred cities, and were destroyed by the Pharusii
140
and the Nigritæ. These people, they say, are distant thirty
days' journey from Lynx.
[
4]
Writers in general are agreed that Mauretania is a fertile country, except a small part which is desert, and is supplied with water by rivers and lakes. It has forests of trees
of vast size, and the soil produces everything. It is this
country which furnishes the Romans with tables, formed of
one piece of wood, of the largest dimensions, and most beautifully variegated. The rivers are said to contain crocodiles
and other kinds of animals similar to those in the Nile. Some
suppose that even the sources of the Nile are near the extremities of Mauretania. In a certain river leeches are bred
seven cubits in length, with gills, pierced through with holes,
through which they respire. This country is also said to
produce a vine, the girth of which two men can scarcely compass, and bearing bunches of grapes of about a cubit in size.
All plants and pot-herbs are tall, as the arum and dracontium;
141
the stalks of the staphylinus,
142 the hippomarathum,
143 and the
scolymus
144 are twelve cubits in height, and four palms in thickness. The country is the fruitful nurse of large serpents, elephants, antelopes, buffaloes, and similar animals; of lions also,
and panthers. It produces weasels (jerboas ?) equal in size and
similar to cats, except that their noses are more prominent;
and multitudes of apes, of which Poseidonius relates, that
when he was sailing from Gades to Italy, and approached the
coast of Africa, he saw a forest low upon the sea-shore full of
these animals, some on the trees, others on the ground, and
some giving suck to their young. He was amused also with
seeing some with large dugs, some bald, others with ruptures,
and exhibiting to view various effects of disease.
[
5]
Above Mauretania, on the exterior sea (the Atlantic), is
the country of the western Ethiopians, as they are called, which,
for the most part, is badly inhabited. Iphicrates
145 says, that
camel-leopards are bred here, and elephants, and the animals
called rhizeis,
146 which in shape are like bulls, but in manner of
living, in size, and strength in fighting, resemble elephants.
He speaks also of large serpents, and says that even grass grows
upon their backs; that lions attack the young of the elephants,
and that when they have wounded them, they fly on the approach of the dams; that the latter, when they see their young
besmeared with blood, kill them; and that the lions return to
the dead bodies, and devour them; that Bogus king of the
Mauretanians, during his expedition against the western
Ethiopians, sent, as a present to his wife, canes similar to the
Indian canes, each joint of which contained eight chœnices,
147
and asparagus of similar magnitude.
[
6]
On sailing into the interior sea, from Lynx, there are Zelis
148
a city and Tingis,
149 then the monuments of the Seven Brothers,
150 and the mountain lying below, of the name of Abyle,
151
abounding with wild animals and trees of a great size. They
say, that the length of the strait at the pillars is 120 stadia,
and the least breadth at Elephas
152 60 stadia On sailing further
along the coast, we find cities and many rivers, as far as the
river Molochath,
153 which is the boundary between the territories
of the Mauretanians and of the Masæsyli. Near the river
is a large promontory, and Metagonium,
154 a place without water
and barren. The mountain extends along the coast, from the
Coteis nearly to this place. Its length from the Coteis to the
borders of the Masæsylii
155 is 5000 stadia. Metagonium is
nearly opposite to New Carthage.
156 Timosthenes is mistaken
in saying that it is opposite to Massalia.
157 The passage across
from New Carthage to Metagonium is 3000 stadia, but the
voyage along the coast to Massalia is above 6000 stadia.
[
7]
Although the Mauretanians inhabit a country, the greatest part of which is very fertile, yet the people in general continue even to this time to live like nomades. They bestow
care to improve their looks by plaiting their hair, trimming
their beards, by wearing golden ornaments, cleaning their
teeth, and paring their nails; and you would rarely see them
touch one another as they walk, lest they should disturb the
arrangement of their hair.
They fight for the most part on horseback, with a javelin; and
ride on the bare back of the horse, with bridles made of rushes.
They have also swords. The foot-soldiers present against the
enemy, as shields, the skins of elephants. They wear the
skins of lions, panthers, and bears, and sleep in them. These
tribes, and the Masæsylii next to them, and for the most part
the Africans in general, wear the same dress and arms, and
resemble one another in other respects; they ride horses which
are small, but spirited and tractable, so as to be guided by a
switch. They have collars
158 made of cotton or of hair, from
which hangs a leading-rein. Some follow, like dogs, without
being led.
They have a small shield of leather, and small lances with
broad heads. Their tunics are loose, with wide borders; their
cloak is a skin, as I have said before, which serves also as a
breastplate.
The Pharusii and Nigretes, who live above these people, near
the western Ethiopians, use bows and arrows, like the Ethiopians. They have chariots also, armed with scythes. The
Pharusii rarely have any intercourse with the Mauretanians
in passing through the desert country, as they carry skins filled
with water, fastened under the bellies of their horses. Sometimes, indeed, they come to Cirta,
159 passing through places
abounding with marshes and lakes. Some of them are said to
live like the Troglodytæ, in caves dug in the ground. It is
said that rain falls there frequently in summer, but that during
the winter drought prevails. Some of the barbarians in that
quarter wear the skins of serpents and fishes, and use them as
coverings for their beds. Some say that the Mauretanians
160
are Indians, who accompanied Hercules hither. A little before my time, the kings Bogus and Bocchus, allies of the
Romans, possessed this country; after their death, Juba succeeded to the kingdom, having received it from Augustus
Cæsar, in addition to his paternal dominions. He was the son
of Juba who fought, in conjunction with Scipio, against divus
Cæsar. Juba died
161 lately, and was succeeded by his son
Ptolemy, whose mother was the daughter of Antony and
Cleopatra.
[
8]
Artemidorus censures Eratosthenes for saying that there
is a city called Lixus, and not Lynx, near the extremities of
Mauretania; that there are a very great number of Phoenician
cities destroyed,
162 of which no traces are to be seen; and that
among the western Ethiopians, in the evenings and the
mornings, the air is misty and dense;—for how could this take
place where there is drought and excessive heat? But he
himself relates of these same parts what is much more liable
to objection. For he speaks of some tribes of Lotophagi, who
had left their own country, and might have occupied the tract
destitute of water; whose food might be a lotus, a sort of
herb, or root, which would supply the want of drink; that
these people extend as far as the places above Cyrene, and
that they live there on milk and flesh, although they are situated in the same latitude.
Gabinius, the Roman historian, indulges in relating marvellous stories of Mauretania. He speaks of a sepulchre of
Antæus at Lynx, and a skeleton of sixty feet in length,
which Sertorius exposed, and afterwards covered it with
earth.
163 His stories also about elephants are fabulous. He
says, that other animals avoid fire, but that elephants resist and fight against it, because it destroys the forests; that
they engage with men in battle, and send out scouts before
them; that when they perceive their enemies fly, they take
to flight themselves; and that when they are wounded, they
hold out as suppliants branches of a tree, or a plant, or throw
up dust.
[
9]
Next to Mauretania is the country of the Masesylii, beginning from the river Molocath, and ending at the promontory which is called Tretum,
164 the boundary of the country of
the Masæsyli and of the Masylies. From Metagonium to
Tretum are 6000 stadia; according to others, the distance is less.
Upon the sea-coast are many cities and rivers, and a country which is very fertile. It will be sufficient to mention the
most renowned. The city of Siga.
165 the royal seat of Syphax,
is at the distance of 1000 stadia from the above-mentioned
boundaries. It is now razed. After Syphax, the country
was in the possession of Masanasses, then of Micipsa, next of
his successors, and in our time of Juba, the father of the Juba
who died lately. Zama,
166 which was Juba's palace, was destroyed by the Romans. At the distance of 600 stadia from
Siga is Theon-limen (port of the gods);
167 next are some other
obscure places.
Deep in the interior of the country are mountainous and
desert tracts scattered here and there, some of which are inhabited and occupied by Gætuli extending to the Syrtes. But
the parts near the sea are fertile plains, in which are numerous
cities, rivers, and lakes.
[
10]
Poseidonius says, but I do not know whether truly,
that Africa is traversed by few, and those small rivers; yet he
speaks of the same rivers, namely those between Lynx and
Carthage, which Artemidorus describes as numerous and
large. This may be asserted with more truth of the interior
of the country, and he himself assigns the reason of it,
namely, that in the northern parts of Africa (and the same
is said of Ethiopia) there is no rain; in consequence therefore of the drought, pestilence frequently ensues, the lakes
are filled with mud only, and locusts appear in clouds.
Poseidonius besides asserts that the eastern parts are moist,
because the sun quickly changes its place after rising; and that
the western parts are dry, because the sun there turns in his
course. Now, drought and moisture depend upon the abundance or scarcity of water, and on the presence or absence of
the sun's rays. But Poseidonius means to speak of the
effects produced by the sun, which all writers determine by
the latitude, north or south; but east and west, as applied to
the residence of men, differ in different places, according to
the position of each inhabited spot and the change of horizon;
so that it cannot be asserted generally of places indefinite in
number, that those lying to the east are moist, and those to the
west dry: but as applied to the whole earth and such extremes
of it as India and Spain, his expressions (east and west) may
be just; yet what truth or probability is there in his (attempted) explanation (of the causes of drought and moisture)?
for in the continuous and unceasing circuit of the sun, what
turn can there be in his course? The rapidity too of his
passage through every part is equal. Besides, it is contrary to evidence to say, that the extreme parts of Spain or
Mauretania towards the west are drier than all other places,
when at the same time they are situated in a temperate
climate and have water in great abundance. But if we are
to understand the turning of the sun in this way, that there
at the extremities of the habitable world he is above the
earth, how does that tend to produce drought ? for there, and
in other places situated in the same latitude, he leaves them
for an equal portion of the night and returns again and
warms the earth.
[
11]
Somewhere there, also, are copper mines; and a spring
of asphaltus; scorpions of enormous size,
168 both with and without wings, are said to be found there, as well as tarantulas,
remarkable for their size and numbers. Lizards also are
mentioned of two cubits in length. At the base of the
mountains precious stones are said to be found, as those called
the Lychnitis (the ruby) and the Carchedonius (the carbuncle?).
In the plains are found great quantities of oyster and mussel
shells, similar to those mentioned in our description of Ammon. There is also a tree called melilotus, from which a
wine is made. Some obtain two crops from the ground and
have two harvests, one in the spring, the other in the summer.
The straw is five cubits in height, and of the thickness of
the little finger; the produce is 250-fold. They do not sow
in the spring, but bush-harrow the ground with bundles of
the paliurus, and find the seed-grain sufficient which falls from
the sheaves during harvest to produce the summer crop. In
consequence of the number of reptiles, they work with coverings on the legs; other parts of the body also are protected
by skins.
[
12]
On this coast was a city called Iol,
169 which Juba, the
father of Ptolemy, rebuilt and changed its name to Cæsarea.
It has a harbour and a small island in front of it. Between
Cæsarea and Tretum
170 is a large harbour called Salda,
171 which
now forms the boundary between the territories subject to
Juba and the Romans; for the country has been subject to
many changes, having had numerous occupants; and the
Romans, at various times, have treated some among them as
friends, others as enemies, conceding or taking away territories
without observing any established rule.
The country on the side of Mauretania produced a greater
revenue and was more powerful, whilst that near Carthage and
of the Masylies was more flourishing and better furnished with
buildings, although it suffered first in the Carthaginian wars,
and subsequently during the war with Jugurtha, who successfully besieged Adarbal in Ityca (Utica),
172 and put him to
death as a friend of the Romans, and thus involved the whole
country in war. Other wars succeeded one another, of which
the last was that between divus Cæsar and Scipio, in which
Juba lost his life. The death of the leaders was accompanied
by the destruction of the cities Tisiæus,
173 Vaga,
174 Thala,
175
Capsa
176 (the treasure-hold of Jugurtha), Zama,
177 and Zincha.
To these must be added those cities in the neighbourhood of
which divus Cæsar obtained victories over Scipio, namely,
first at Ruspinum,
178 then at Uzita, then at Thapsus and the
neighbouring lake, and at many others. Near are the free
cities Zella and Acholla.
179 Cæsar also captured at the first
onset the island Cercinna,
180 and Thena, a small city on the seacoast. Some of these cities utterly disappeared, and others
were abandoned, being partly destroyed. Phara was burnt by
the cavalry of Scipio.
[
13]
After Tretum follows the territory of the Masylies,
and that of the Carthaginians which borders upon it. In the
interior is Cirta, the royal residence of Masanasses and his
successors. It is a very strong place and well provided with
everything, which it principally owes to Micipsa, who established a colony of Greeks in it, and raised it to such importance,
that it was capable of sending out 10,000 cavalry and twice
as many infantry. Here, besides Cirta, are the two cities
Hippo,
181 one of which is situated near Ityca, the other further
off near Tretum, both royal residences. Ityca is next to
Carthage in extent and importance. On the destruction of
Carthage it became a metropolis to the Romans, and the head
quarters of their operations in Africa. It is situated in the
very bay itself of Carthage, on one of the promontories
which form it, of which the one near Ityca is called Apollonium, the other Hermæa. Both cities are in sight of each
other. Near Ityca flows the river Bagradas.
182 From Tretum
to Carthage are 2,500 stadia, but authors are not agreed upon
this distance, nor on the distance (of Carthage) from the
Syrtes.
[
14]
Carthage is situated upon a peninsula, comprising a
circuit of 360 stadia, with a wall, of which sixty stadia in
length are upon the neck of the peninsula, and reach from
sea to sea. Here the Carthaginians kept their elephants, it
being a wide open place. In the middle of the city was the
acropolis, which they called Byrsa, a hill of tolerable height
with dwellings round it. On the summit was the temple of
Esculapius, which was destroyed when the wife of Asdrubas
burnt herself to death there, on the capture of the city.
Below the Acropolis were the harbours and the Cothon, a
circular island, surrounded by a canal communicating with the
sea (Euripus), and on every side of it (upon the canal) were
situated sheds for vessels.
[
15]
Carthage was founded by Dido, who brought her
people from Tyre. Both this colony and the settlements in
Spain and beyond the Pillars proved so successful to the
Phoenicians, that even to the present day they occupy the
best parts on the continent of Europe and the neighbouring
islands. They obtained possession of the whole of Africa,
with the exception of such parts as could only be held by
nomade tribes. From the power they acquired they raised a
city to rival Rome, and waged three great wars against her.
Their power became most conspicuous in the last war, in which
they were vanquished by Scipio Æmilianus, and their city
was totally destroyed. For at the commencement of this war,
they possessed 300 cities in Africa, and the population of
Carthage amounted to 700,000 inhabitants. After being besieged and compelled to surrender, they delivered up 200,000
complete suits of armour and 3000
183 engines for throwing
projectiles, apparently with the intention of abandoning all
hostilities; but having resolved to recommence the war, they
at once began to manufacture arms, and daily deposited in
store 140 finished shields, 300 swords, 500 lances, and 1000
projectiles for the engines, for the use of which the women-servants contributed their hair. In addition to this, although
at this moment they were in possession of only twelve ships,
according to the terms of the treaty concluded in the second
war, and had already taken refuge in a body at the Byrsa,
yet in two months they equipped 120 decked vessels; and, as
the mouth of the Cothon was closed against them, cut another
outlet (to the sea) through which the fleet suddenly made its
appearance. For wood had been collected for a long time,
and a multitude of workmen were constantly employed, who
were maintained at the public expense.
Carthage, though so great, was yet taken and levelled to
the ground.
The Romans made a province of that part of the country
which had been subject to Carthage, and appointed ruler of the
rest Masanasses and his descendants, beginning with Micipsa.
For the Romans paid particular attention to Masanasses on
account of his great abilities and friendship for them. For
he it was who formed the nomades to civil life, and directed
their attention to husbandry. Instead of robbers he taught
them to be soldiers. A peculiarity existed among these
people; they inhabited a country favoured in everything
except that it abounded with wild beasts; these they neglected
to destroy, and so to cultivate the soil in security; but turning
their arms against each other, abandoned the country to the
beasts of prey. Hence their life was that of wanderers and
of continual change, quite as much as that of those who are
compelled to it by want and barrenness of soil or severity of
climate. An appropriate name was therefore given to the
Masæsylii, for they were called Nomades.
184 Such persons
must necessarily be sparing livers, eaters of roots more than
of flesh, and supported by milk and cheese. Carthage
remained a desolate place for a long time, for nearly the same
period, indeed, as Corinth, until it was restored about the
same time (as the latter city) by divus Cæsar, who sent thither
such Romans to colonize it as elected to go there, and also
some soldiers. At present it is the most populous city in
Africa.
[
16]
About the middle of the gulf of Carthage is the island
Corsura.
185 On the other side of the strait opposite to these
places is Sicily and Lilybæum,
186 at the distance of (about)
1500 stadia; for this is said to be the distance from Lilybæum to Carthage. Not far from Corsura and Sicily are
other islands, among which is Ægimurus.
187 From Carthage
there is a passage of 60 stadia to the nearest opposite coast,
from whence there is an ascent of 120 stadia to Nepheris, a
fortified city built upon a rock. On the same gulf as Carthage, is situated a city Tunis; hot springs and stone quarries
are also found there; then the rugged promontory Hermæa,
188
on which is a city of the same name; then Neapolis; then
Cape Taphitis,
189 on which is a hillock named Aspis, from its
resemblance (to a shield), at which place Agathocles, tyrant
of Sicily, collected inhabitants when he made his expedition
against Carthage. These cities were destroyed by the Romans, together with Carthage. At the distance of 400 stadia
from Taphitis is an island Cossuros, with a city of the same
name, lying opposite to the river Selinus in Sicily. Its circuit
is 150 stadia, and its distance from Sicily about 600 stadia.
Melite,
190 an island, is 500 stadia distant from Cossuros. Then
follows the city Adrumes,
191 with a naval arsenal; then the
Taracheiæ, numerous small islands; then the city Thapsus.
192
and near it Lopadussa,
193 an island situated far from the coast;
then the promontory of Ammon Balithon, near which is a
look-out for
194 the approach of thunny; then the city Thena,
lying at the entrance of the Little Syrtis.
195 There are many
small cities in the intervening parts, which are not worthy of
notice. At the entrance of the Syrtis, a long island stretches
parallel to the coast, called Cercinna; it is of considerable
size, with a city of the same name; there is also another
smaller island Cercinnitis.
[
17]
Close, in the neighbourhood (of these islands), is the
Little Syrtis, which is also called the Syrtis Lotophagitis (or
the lotus-eating Syrtis). The circuit of this gulf is 1600, and
the breadth of the entrance 600 stadia; at each of the promontories which form the entrance and close to the mainland
is an island, one of which, just mentioned, is Cercinna, and the
other Meninx;
196 they are nearly equal in size. Meninx is
supposed to be the ‘land of the lotus-eaters’
197 mentioned by
Homer. Certain tokens (of this) are shown, such as an altar
of Ulysses and the fruit itself. For the tree called the lotus-tree is found in abundance in the island, and the fruit is very
sweet to the taste. There are many small cities in it, one of
which bears the same name as the island. On the coast of
the Syrtis itself are also some small cities. In the recess (of
the Syrtis) is a very considerable mart for commerce, where a
river discharges itself into the gulf. The effects of the flux
and reflux of the tides extend up to this point, and at the
proper moment the neighbouring inhabitants eagerly rush
(to the shore) to capture the fish (thrown up).
[
18]
After the Syrtis, follows the lake Zuchis, 400 stadia
(in circuit?), with a narrow entrance, where is situated a city
of the same name, containing factories for purple dyeing and
for salting of all kinds; then follows another lake much
smaller; after this the city Abrotonon
198 and some others.
Close by is Neapolis, which is also called Leptis.
199 From
hence the passage across to the Locri Epizephyrii
200 is a distance of 3600 stadia. Next is the river [Cinyps].
201 Afterwards is a walled darn, constructed by the Carthaginians, who
thus bridged over some deep swamps which extend far into
the country. There are some places here without harbours,
although the rest of the coast is provided with them. Next
is a lofty wooded promontory, which is the commencement of
the Great Syrtis, and called Cephalæ (The Heads),
202 from
whence to Carthage is a distance of a little more than 5000
stadia.
[
19]
Above the sea-coast from Carthage to Cephalæ (on the
one hand) and to the territory of the Masæsyli (on the other)
lies the territory of the Libo-Phœnicians, extending (into the
interior) to the mountainous country of the Gætuli, which
belongs to Africa Proper. Above the Gætuli is the country
of the Garamantes, lying parallel to the former, and from
whence are brought the Carthaginian pebbles (carbuncles). The
Garamantes are said to be distant from the Ethiopians, who
live on the borders of the ocean, nine or ten days' journey,
and from the temple of Ammon fifteen days. Between the
Gætuli and the coast of our sea (the Mediterranean) there
are many plains and many mountains, great lakes and rivers,
some of which sink into the earth and disappear. The inhabitants are simple in their mode of life and in their dress;
they marry numerous wives, and have a numerous offspring;
in other respects they resemble the nomade Arabians. The
necks both of horses and oxen are longer than in other
countries.
The breeding of horses is most carefully attended to by
the kings (of the country); so much so, that the number of
colts is yearly calculated at 100,000. Sheep are fed with
milk and flesh, particularly near Ethiopia. These are the
customs of the interior.
[
20]
The circuit of the Great Syrtis is about 3930 stadia,
203
its depth to the recess is 1500 stadia, and its breadth at the
mouth is also nearly the same. The difficulty of navigating
both these and the Lesser Syrtis [arises from the circumstances
of] the soundings in many parts being soft mud. It sometimes happens, on the ebbing and flowing of the tide, that
vessels are carried upon the shallows, settle down, and are seldom recovered. Sailors therefore, in coasting, keep at a
distance (from the shore), and are on their guard, lest they
should be caught by a wind unprepared, and driven into these
gulfs. Yet the daring disposition of man induces him to attempt everything, and particularly the coasting along a
shore. On entering the Great Syrtis on the right, after passing the promontory Cephalæ, is a lake of about 300 stadia in
length, and 70 stadia in breadth, which communicates with
the gulf, and has at its entrance small islands and an anchorage. After the lake follows a place called Aspis, and a harbour, the best of all in the Syrtis. Near this place is the
tower Euphrantas, the boundary between the former territory
of Carthage and Cyrenaïca under Ptolemy (Soter). Then
another place, called Charax,
204 which the Carthaginians frequented as a place of commerce, with cargoes of wine, and
loaded in return with silphium and its juice, which they received from merchants who brought it away clandestinely
from Cyrene; then the Altars of the Philæni;
205 after these
Automola, a fortress defended by a garrison, and situated in
the recess of the whole gulf. The parallel passing through
this recess is more to the south than that passing through
Alexandreia by 1000 stadia, and than that passing through
Carthage by less than 2000 stadia; but it would coincide
with the parallel passing, on one side, through Heroopolis,
which is situated in the recess
206 of the Arabian Gulf, and
passing, on the other, through the interior of the territory of
the Masæsylii and the Mauretanians. The rest of the
sea-coast, to the city Berenice,
207 is 1500 stadia in length.
Above this length of coast, and extending to the Altars of the
Philæni, are situated an African nation called Nasamones.
The intervening distance (between the recess of the Syrtis
and Berenice) contains but few harbours, and watering-places
are rare.
On a promontory called Pseudopenias is situated Berenice,
near a lake Tritonis, in which is to be observed a small island
with a temple of Venus upon it. There also is a lake of the
Hesperides, into which flows a river (called) Lathon. On
this side of Berenice is a small promontory called Boreion
208
(or North Cape), which with Cephalæ forms the entrance of
the Syrtis. Berenice lies opposite to the promontories of
Peloponnesus, namely, those called Ichthys
209 and [Chelonatas],
210
and also to the island Zacynthus,
211 at an interval of 3600
stadia. Marcus Cato marched from this city, round the Syrtis, in thirty days, at the head of an army composed of more
than 10,000 men, separated into divisions on account of the
watering-places; his course lay through deep sand, under
burning heat. After Berenice is a city Taucheira,
212 called
also Arsinoë; then Barca,
213 formerly so called, but now Pto-
lemaïs; then the promontory Phycus,
214 which is low, but ex-
tends further to the north than the rest of the African coast:
it is opposite to Tænarum,
215 in Laconia, at the distance
216 of
2800 stadia; on it there is also a small town of the same
name as the promontory. Not far from Phycus, at a distance
of about 170 stadia, is Apollonias, the naval arsenal of Cyrene;
from Berenice it is distant 1000 stadia, and 80 stadia from
Cyrene, a considerable city situated on a table-land, as I observed it from the sea.
[
21]
Cyrene was founded by the inhabitants of Thera,
217 a
Lacedæmonian island which was formerly called Calliste, as
Callimachus says,
“‘Calliste once its name, but Thera in later times, the mother of my home,
famed for its steeds.’”
The harbour of Cyrene is situated opposite to Criu-Metopon,
218
the western cape of Crete, distant 2000 stadia. The passage
is made with a south-south-west wind. Cyrene is said to have
been founded by Battus,
219 whom Callimachus claims to have
been his ancestor. The city flourished from the excellence of
the soil, which is peculiarly adapted for breeding horses, and
the growth of fine crops. It has produced many men of
distinction, who have shown themselves capable of worthily
maintaining the freedom of the place, and firmly resisting the
barbarians of the interior; hence the city was independent in
ancient times, but subsequently
220 it was attacked [successfully] by the Macedonians, (who had conquered Egypt, and
thus increased their power,) under the command of Thibron
the murderer of Harpalus: having continued for some time
to be governed by kings, it finally came under the power of
the Romans, and with Crete forms a single province. In
the neighbourhood of Cyrene are Apollonia, Barca, Taucheira,
Berenice, and other small towns close by.
[
22]
Bordering upon Cyrenaica is the district which produces
silphium, and the juice called Cyrenaic, which the silphium
discharges from incisions made in it. The plant was once
nearly lost, in consequence of a spiteful incursion of barbarians,
who attempted to destroy all the roots. The inhabitants of
this district are nomades.
Remarkable persons of Cyrene were Aristippus,
221 the Socratic philosopher, who established the Cyrenaïc philosophy, and
his daughter named Arete, who succeeded to his school; she
again was succeeded by her son Aristippus, who was called
Metrodidactos, (mother-taught,) and Anniceris, who is supposed
to have reformed the Cyrenaic sect, and to have introduced in
its stead the Anniceric sect. Callimachus and Eratosthenes
222
were also of Cyrene, both of whom were held in honour by
the kings of Egypt; the former was both a poet and a zealous
grammarian; the latter followed not only these pursuits, but
also philosophy, and was distinguished above all others for his
knowledge of mathematics. Carneades
223 also came from
thence, who by common consent was the first of the Academic
philosophers, and Apollonius Cronos, the master of Diodorus
the Dialectician, who was also called Cronos, for the epithet
of the master was by some transferred to the scholar.
The rest of the sea-coast of Cyrene from Apollonia to Catabathmus is 2200 stadia in length; it does not throughout afford
facilities for coasting along it; for harbours, anchorage, habitations, and watering-places are few. The places most in repute along the coast are the Naustathmus,
224 and Zephyrium
with an anchorage, also another Zephyrium, and a promontory
called Chersonesus,
225 with a harbour situated opposite to and to
the south of Corycus
226 in Crete, at the distance of 2500 stadia;
then a temple of Hercules, and above it a village Paliurus;
then a harbour Menelaus, and a low promontory Ardanixis,
(Ardanis,)
227 with an anchorage; then a great harbour, which
is situated opposite to Chersonesus in Crete, at a distance of
about 3000 (2000 ?) stadia; for the whole of Crete, which is
(a) long and narrow (island), lies opposite and nearly parallel to
this coast. After the great harbour is another harbour, Plynos, and about it Tetra-pyrgia (the four towers). The place
is called Catabathmus.
228 Cyrenæa extends to this point; the
remainder (of the coast) to Parætonium,
229 and from thence to
Alexandreia, we have spoken of in our account of Egypt.
230
[
23]
The country deep in the interior, and above the Syrtis
and Cyrenæa, a very sterile and dry tract, is in the possession
of Libyans. First are the Nasamones, then Psylli, and some
Gætuli, then Garamantes; somewhat more towards the east (than
the Nasamones) are the Marmaridæ, who are situated for the
most part on the boundaries of Cyrenæa, and extend to the
temple of Ammon. It is asserted, that persons directing their
course from the recess of the Great Syrtis, (namely,) from about
the neighbourhood of Automala,
231 in the direction of the winter
sunrise, arrive on the fourth day at Augila.
232 This place resembles Ammon, and is productive of palm trees, and is well
supplied with water. It is situated beyond Cyrenæa to the
south: for 100 stadia the soil produces trees; for another 100
stadia the land is only sown, but from excessive heat does not
grow rice.
Above these parts is the district which produces silphium,
then follows the uninhabited tract, and the country of the
Garamantes. The district which produces silphium is narrow,
long, and dry, extending in an easterly direction about 1000
stadia, but in breadth 300 stadia, or rather more, at least as
far as has been ascertained. For we may conjecture that all
countries which lie on the same parallel (of latitude) have the
same climate, and produce the same plants; but since many
deserts intervene, we cannot know every place. In like manner, we have no information respecting the country beyond
(the temple of) Ammon, nor of the oases, as far as Ethiopia,
nor can we state distinctly what are the boundaries of Ethiopia, nor of Africa, nor even of the country close upon Egypt,
still less of the parts bordering on the ocean.
[
24]
Such, then, is the disposition of the parts of the world
which we inhabit.
233 But since the Romans have surpassed (in
power) all former rulers of whom we have any record, and
possess the choicest and best known parts of it, it will be suitable to our subject briefly to refer to their Empire.
It has been already stated
234 how this people, beginning from
the single city of Rome, obtained possession of the whole of
Italy, by warfare and prudent administration; and how, afterwards, following the same wise course, they added the countries all around it to their dominion.
Of the three continents, they possess nearly the whole of
Europe, with the exception only of the parts beyond the
Danube, (to the north,) and the tracts on the verge of the
ocean, comprehended between the Rhine and the Tanaïs (Don).
Of Africa, the whole sea-coast on the Mediterranean is in
their power; the rest of that country is uninhabited, or the inhabitants only lead a miserable and nomade life.
Of Asia likewise, the whole sea-coast in our direction (on
the west) is subject to them, unless indeed any account is to
be taken of the Achei, Zygi, and Heniochi,
235 who are robbers
and nomades, living in confined and wretched districts. Of
the interior, and of the parts far inland, the Romans possess
one portion, and the Parthians, or the barbarians beyond them,
the other; on the east and north are Indians, Bactrians, and
Scythians; then (on the south) Arabians and Ethiopians;
but territory is continually being abstracted from these people
by the Romans.
Of all these countries some are governed by (native) kings,
but the rest are under the immediate authority of Rome, under
the title of provinces, to which are sent governors and collectors of tribute; there are also some free cities, which from
the first sought the friendship of Rome, or obtained their
freedom as a mark of honour. Subject to her also are some
princes, chiefs of tribes, and priests, who (are permitted) to live
in conformity with their national laws.
[
25]
The division into provinces has varied at different
periods, but at present it is that established by Augustus
Cæsar; for after the sovereign power had been conferred upon
him by his country for life, and he had become the arbiter of
peace and war, he divided the whole empire into two parts,
one of which he reserved to himself, the other he assigned to
the (Roman) people. The former consisted of such parts as
required military defence, and were barbarian, or bordered
upon nations not as yet subdued, or were barren and uncultivated, which though ill provided with everything else, were
yet well furnished with strongholds. and might thus dispose
the inhabitants to throw off the yoke and rebel. All the rest,
which were peaceable countries, and easily governed without
the assistance of arms, were given over to the (Roman)
people. Each of these parts was subdivided into several
provinces, which received respectively the titles of ‘provinces of Cæsar’ and ‘provinces of the People.’
To the former provinces Cæsar appoints governors and
administrators, and divides the (various) countries sometimes
in one way, sometimes in another, directing his political conduct according to circumstances.
But the people appoint commanders and consuls to their
own provinces, which are also subject to divers divisions
when expediency requires it.
(Augustus Cæsar) in his first organization of (the Empire)
created two consular governments, namely, (1.) the whole of
Africa in possession of the Romans, excepting that part
which was under the authority, first of Juba, but now of his
son Ptolemy; and (2.) Asia within the Halys and Taurus, except
the Galatians and the nations under Amyntas, Bithynia, and
the Propontis. He appointed also ten consular governments
in Europe and in the adjacent islands. Iberia Ulterior
(Further Spain) about the river Bætis
236 and Celtica Narbonensis
237 (composed the two first). The third was Sardinia,
with Corsica; the fourth Sicily; the fifth and sixth Illyria,
districts near Epirus, and Macedonia; the seventh Achaia,
extending to Thessaly, the Ætolians, Acarnanians, and the
Epirotic nations who border upon Macedonia; the eighth
Crete, with Cyrenæa; the ninth Cyprus; the tenth Bithynia,
with the Propontis and some parts of Pontus.
Cæsar possesses other provinces, to the government of which
he appoints men of consular rank, commanders of armies, or
knights;
238 and in his (peculiar) portion (of the empire) there
are and ever have been kings, princes, and (municipal)
magistrates.