[1022a]
[1]
All
other things are so called in virtue of these, because they either
produce or possess something of this kind, or conform to it, or are
referred in some way or other to things which are perfect in the
primary sense."Limit" means: (a) The furthest part of
each thing, and the first point outside which no part of a thing can
be found, and the first point within which all parts are contained.
(b) Any form of magnitude or of something possessing
magnitude.(c) The
end of each thing. (This end is that to which motion and
action proceed, and not the end from which. But sometimes
it is both the end from which and the end to which, i.e. the final
cause.) (d) The reality or essence of each thing; for this is the
limit of our knowledge of it, and if it is a limit of the knowledge,
it is also a limit of the thing. Thus it is obvious that "limit" has
not only as many senses as "beginning" but even more; because the
beginning is a kind of limit, but not every limit is a
beginning."That in virtue of which" has various
meanings. (a) The form or essence of each individual thing; e.g., that
in virtue of which a man is good is "goodness itself." (b) The
immediate substrate in which a thing is naturally produced; as, e.g.,
color is produced in the surface of things. Thus "that in virtue of
which" in the primary sense is the form , and in the
secondary sense, as it were, the matter of each thing,
and the immediate substrate.And in general "that in virtue of which" will
exist in the same number of senses as "cause."
[20]
For we say indifferently "in virtue of
what has he come?" or "for what reason has he come?" and "in virtue of
what has he inferred or inferred falsely?" or "what is the cause of
his inference or false inference?" (And further, there is the
positional sense of καθ᾽ ὅ, "in
which he stands," or "in which he walks"; all these examples denote
place or position.)Hence "in virtue of itself" must also
have various meanings. It denotes (a) The essence of each particular;
e.g., Callias is in virtue of himself Callias and the essence of
Callias. (b) Everything contained in the definition; e.g., Callias is
in virtue of himself an animal, because "animal" is present in the
definition, since Callias is a kind of animal.(c) Any attribute which a thing has
received directly in itself or in any of its parts; e.g., the surface
is white in virtue of itself; and man lives in virtue of himself,
because the soul is a part of the man, and life is directly contained
in it. (d) That which has no other cause. Man has many causes:
"animal," "twofooted," etc.; but nevertheless man is in virtue of
himself man. (e) All things which belong to a thing alone and qua alone; and hence that which is separate
is "in virtue of itself."1
Aristotle. Aristotle in 23 Volumes, Vols.17, 18, translated by Hugh Tredennick. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1933, 1989.
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