Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics
H. Rackham, Ed.

What kind of actions then are to be called ‘compulsory’? Used without qualification, perhaps this term applies to any case where the cause of the action lies in things outside the agent, and when the agent contributes nothing. But when actions intrinsically involuntary are yet in given circumstances deliberately chosen in preference to a given alternative, and when their origin lies in the agent, these actions are to be pronounced intrinsically involuntary but voluntary in the circumstances, and in preference to the alternative. They approximate however rather to the voluntary class, since conduct consists of particular things done,¹ and the particular things done in the cases in question are voluntary. But it is not easy to lay down rules for deciding which of two alternatives is to be chosen, for particular cases differ widely.1. [11]

To apply the term ‘compulsory’ to acts done for the sake of pleasure or for noble objects, on the plea that these exercise constraint on us from without, is to make every action compulsory. For （1） pleasure and nobility between them supply the motives of all actions whatsoever. Also （2） to act under compulsion and involuntarily is painful, but actions aiming at something pleasant or noble are done with pleasure. And （3） it is absurd to blame external things, instead of blaming ourselves for falling an easy prey to their attractions; or to take the credit of our noble deeds to ourselves, while putting the blame for our disgraceful ones upon the temptations of pleasure. 1. [12] It appears therefore that an act is compulsory when its origin is from outside, the person compelled contributing nothing to it.1. [13]

（b） An act done through ignorance is in every case not voluntary,² but it is involuntary only when it causes the agent pain and regret: since a man who has acted