BOOK XII. THE NATURAL HISTORY OF TREES
CHAP. 1.—THE HONOURABLE PLACE OCCUPIED BY TREES IN
THE SYSTEM OF NATURE.
Such, then, is the history, according to their various species
and their peculiar conformations, of all the animals within the
compass of our knowledge. It now remains for us to speak of
the vegetable productions of the earth, which are equally far
from being destitute of a vital spirit,
1 (for, indeed, nothing can
live without it), that we may then proceed to describe the minerals extracted from it, and so none of the works of Nature may
be passed by in silence. Long, indeed, were these last bounties of hers concealed beneath the ground, the trees and forests
being regarded as the most valuable benefits conferred by Nature upon mankind. It was from the forest that man drew
his first aliment, by the leaves of the trees was his cave rendered more habitable, and by their bark was his clothing supplied; even at this very day,
2 there are nations that live
under similar circumstances to these. Still more and more,
then, must we be struck with wonder and admiration, that
from a primæval state such as this, we should now be cleaving
the mountains for their marbles, visiting the Seres
3 to obtain
our clothing, seeking the pearl in the depths of the Red Sea,
and the emerald in the very bowels of the earth. For our
adornment with these precious stones it is that we have devised
those wounds which we make in our ears; because, forsooth,
it was deemed not enough to carry them on our hands, our
necks, and our hair, if we did not insert them in our very flesh
as well. It will be only proper, then, to follow the order of
human inventions, and to speak of the trees before treating of
other subjects; thus may we trace up to their very origin the
manners and usages of the present day.
CHAP. 2. (1.)—THE EARLY HISTORY OF TREES.
The trees formed the first temples of the gods, and even at
the present day, the country people, preserving in all their
simplicity their ancient rites, consecrate the finest among their
trees to some divinity;
4 indeed, we feel ourselves inspired to
adoration, not less by the sacred groves and their very stillness,
than by the statues of the gods, resplendent as they are with
gold and ivory. Each kind of tree remains immutably consecrated to its own peculiar divinity, the beech
5 to Jupiter,
6 the
laurel to Apollo, the olive to Minerva, the myrtle to Venus,
and the poplar to Hercules: besides which, it is our belief
that the Sylvans, the Fauns, and various kinds of goddess
Nymphs, have the tutelage of the woods, and we look upon
those deities as especially appointed to preside over them by
the will of heaven. In more recent times, it was the trees
that by their juices, more soothing even than corn, first mollified the natural asperity of man; and it is from these that we
now derive the oil of the olive that renders the limbs so supple,
the draught of wine that so efficiently recruits the strength,
and the numerous delicacies which spring up spontaneously at
the various seasons of the year, and load our tables with their
viands—tables to replenish which, we engage in combat with
wild beasts, and seek for the fishes which have fattened upon
the dead corpse of the shipwrecked mariner—indeed, it is only
at the second
7 course, after all, that the produce of the trees
appears.
But, in addition to this, the trees have a thousand other
uses, all of which are indispensable to the full enjoyment of
life. It is by the aid of the tree that we plough the deep, and bring near to us far distant lands; it is by the aid of the tree,
too, that we construct our edifices. The statues, even, of the
deities were formed of the wood of trees, in the days when no
value had been set as yet on the dead carcase
8 of a wild beast,
and when, luxury not yet deriving its sanction from the
gods themselves, we had not to behold, resplendent with the
same ivory, the heads of the divinities
9 and the feet of our
tables. It is related that the Gauls, separated from us as they
were by the Alps, which then formed an almost insurmountable
bulwark, had, as their chief motive for invading Italy, its
dried figs, its grapes, its oil, and its wine, samples
10 of which
had been brought back to them by Helico, a citizen of the
Helvetii, who had been staying at Rome, to practise there as
an artizan. We may offer some excuse, then, for them, when
we know that they came in quest of these various productions,
though at the price even of war.
CHAP. 3.—EXOTIC TREES. WHEN THE PLANE-TREE FIRST
APPEARED IN ITALY, AND WHENCE IT CAME.
But who is there that will not, with good reason, be surprised to learn that a tree has been introduced among us from
a foreign clime for nothing but its shade? I mean the plane,
11
which was first brought across the Ionian Sea to the Isle
12 of
Diomedes, there to be planted at his tomb, and was afterwards
imported thence into Sicily, being one of the very first exotic
trees that were introduced into Italy. At the present day,
however, it has penetrated as far as the country of the
Morini, and occupies even a tributary
13 soil; in return for which
those nations have to pay a tax for the enjoyment of its shade.
Dionysius the Elder, one of the tyrants of Sicily, had plane-trees conveyed to the city of Rhegium, where they were looked
upon as the great marvel of his palace, which was afterwards
converted into a gymnasium. These trees did not, however,
in that locality, attain any very great height. I find it also
stated by some authors, that there were some other instances,
in those days even, of plane-trees being found in Italy, and I
find some mentioned by name as existing in Spain.
14
CHAP. 4.—THE NATURE OF THE PLANE-TREE.
This circumstance took place about the time of the capture
of the City of Rome; and to such high honour, in the course
of time, did the plane-tree attain, that it was nurtured by
pouring wine upon it, it being found that the roots were greatly
strengthened by doing
15 so. Thus have we taught the very
trees, even, to be wine-bibbers!
CHAP. 5.—REMARKABLE FACTS CONNECTED WITH THE
PLANE-TREE.
The first plane-trees that were spoken of in terms of high
admiration were those which adorned the walks of the Academy
16 at Athens-[in one of which], the roots extended a distance of thirty-three cubits, and spread far beyond its branches.
At the present day, there is a very famous plane in Lycia,
situate in close proximity to a fountain of the most refreshing coolness; standing near the road, with the cavity in its
interior, it forms a species of house eighty-one feet in width.
Its summit, too, presents the foliage of a grove, while it shields
itself with huge branches, each of which would equal an ordinary tree in size, as it throws its lengthened shade across the
fields. In addition to this, that nothing may be wanting to
its exact resemblance to a grotto, there is a circle of seats
within, formed of stone, intermingled with pumice overgrown
with moss. This tree was looked upon as so worthy of remark,
that Licinius Mucianus, who was three times consul, and recently the legatus of that province, thought it a circumstance
deserving of transmission even to posterity, that he, together
with eighteen persons of his retinue, had sat down to a banquet
in the interior of it. Its leaves afforded material for their
couches in the greatest abundance, while he himself, sheltered
from every gust of wind, and trying in vain to hear the pattering of the rain on the leaves, took his meal there, and enjoyed himself more than he would have done amid the resplendence of marble, a multiplicity of paintings, and beneath a
cieling refulgent with gold.
Another curious instance, again, was that afforded in the
reign of the Emperor Caius.
17 That prince was so struck with
admiration on seeing a plane in the territory of Veliternum,
which presented floor after floor, like those of the several stories
of a house, by means of broad benches loosely laid from branch
to branch, that he held a banquet in it-himself adding
18 very
materially to the shade it threw-the triclinium being formed
for the reception of fifteen guests and the necessary attendants:
to this singular dining-room he gave the name of his "nest."
At Gortyna, in the Isle of Crete, there is, in the vicinity of
a fountain there, a single plane-tree, which has been long celebrated in the records of both the Greek and the Latin language:
it never loses
19 its leaves, and from an early period one of the
fabulous legends of Greece has been attached to it, to the effect
that it was beneath this tree that Jupiter lay with Europa;
just as if there had not been another tree of a similar nature
in the island of Cyprus. Slips of the tree at Gortyna—so
fond is man by nature of novelty—were at an early period
planted at different places in Crete, and reproduced the natural
imperfections of the tree;
20 though, indeed, there is no higher
recommendation in the plane than the fact that in summer it
protects us from the rays of the sun, while in winter it admits
them. In later times, during the reign of the Emperor
Claudius, a Thessalian eunuch, the freedman of Marcellus
Æserninus,
21 who, however, from motives of ambition had enrolled himself in the number of the freedmen of the emperor,
and had acquired very considerable wealth, introduced this
plane into Italy, in order to beautify his country-seat: so that
he may not inappropriately be styled a second Dionysius.
These monstrosities of other lands are still to be seen in Italy,
independently of those which that country has herself devised.
CHAP. 6. (2.)—THE CHAMÆPLATANUS. WHO WAS THE FIRST
TO CLIP GREEN SHRUBS.
For we find in Italy some plane-trees, which are known as
chamæplatani,
22 in consequence of their stunted growth; for
we have discovered the art of causing abortion in trees even,
and hence, even in the vegetable world we shall have occasion
to make mention of dwarfs, an unprepossessing subject in every
case. This result is obtained in trees, by a peculiar method
adopted in planting and lopping them. C. Matius,
23 a member
of the Equestrian order, and a friend of the late Emperor
Augustus, invented the art of clipping arbours, within the last
eighty years.
CHAP. 7. (3.)—HOW THE CITRON IS PLANTED.
The cherry and the peach, and all those trees which have
either Greek or foreign names, are exotics: those, however, of
this number, which have begun to be naturalized among us,
will be treated of when I come to speak of the fruit-trees in
general. For the present, I shall only make mention of the
really exotic trees, beginning with the one that is applied to
the most salutary uses. The citron tree, called the Assyrian,
and by some the Median apple, is an antidote against poisons.
24
The leaf is similar to that of the arbute, except that it has
small prickles
25 running across it. As to the fruit, it is never
eaten,
26 but it is remarkable for its extremely powerful smell,
which is the case, also, with the leaves; indeed, the odour is
so strong, that it will penetrate clothes, when they are once
impregnated with it, and hence it is very useful in repelling
the attacks of noxious insects. The tree bears fruit at all
seasons of the year; while some is falling off, other fruit is
ripening, and other, again, just bursting into birth. Various
nations have attempted to naturalize this tree among them, for
the sake of its medical properties, by planting it in pots of
clay, with holes drilled in them, for the purpose of introducing
the air to the roots; and I would here remark, once for all,
that it is as well to remember that the best plan is to pack all
slips of trees that have to be carried to any distance, as close
together as they can possibly be placed. It has been found,
however, that this tree will grow nowhere
27 except in
Media or Persia. It is this fruit, the pips of which, as we
have already mentioned,
28 the Parthian grandees employ in
seasoning their ragouts, as being peculiarly conducive to the
sweetening of the breath. We find no other tree very highly
commended that is produced in Media.
CHAP. 8. (4.)—THE TREES OF INDIA.
In describing the country of the Seres, we have already
made mention
29 of the wool-bearing trees which it produces;
and we have, likewise, touched
30 upon the extraordinary
magnitude of the trees of India. Virgil
31 has spoken in
glowing terms of the ebony-tree, one of those which are peculiar to India, and he further informs us, that it will grow in
no other country. Herodotus, however, has preferred to
ascribe
32 it to Æthiopia; and states that the people of that
country were in the habit of paying to the kings of Persia,
every third year, by way of tribute,
33 one hundred billets of
ebony-wood, together with a certain quantity of gold and
ivory. Nor ought we here to omit the fact, inasmuch as the
same author has stated to that effect, that the Æthiopians
were also in the habit of paying, by way of tribute, twenty
large elephants' teeth. So high was the esteem in which
ivory was held in the year from the building of our city,
310: for it was at that period
34 that this author was compiling his History at Thurii, in Italy; which is all the more
remarkable, from the implicit confidence we place in him,
when he says
35 that up to that time, no native of Asia or
Greece, to his knowledge at least, had ever beheld the river
Padus. The plan of Æthiopia, which, as we have already
mentioned,
36 was recently laid before the Emperor Nero, informs us, that this tree is very uncommon in the country that
lies between Syene, the extreme boundary of the empire, and
Meroë, a distance of eight hundred and ninety-six miles; and
that, in fact, the only kind of tree that is to be found there, is
the palm. It was, probably, for this reason, that ebony held
the third place in the tribute that was thus imposed.
CHAP. 9.—WHEN EBONY WAS FIRST SEEN AT ROME. THE VARIOUS
KINDS OF EBONY.
Pompeius Magnus displayed ebony on the occasion of his
triumph over Mithridates. Fabianus declares, that this wood
will give out no flame; it burns, however, with a very agreeable smell. There are two kinds
37 of ebony; the rarest kind
is the best, and is produced from a tree that is singularly free
from knots. The wood is black and shining, and pleasing to
the eye, without any adventitious aid from art. The other
kind of ebony is the produce of a shrub which resembles the
cytisus, and is to be found scattered over the whole of India.
CHAP. 10. (5.)—THE INDIAN THORN.
There is in India, also, a kind of thorn
38 very similar to
ebony, though it may be distinguished from it, by the aid of
a lantern even; for, on the application of flame, it will instantly run across the tree. We will now proceed to describe
those trees which were the admiration of Alexander the Great
in his victorious career, when that part of the world was first
revealed by his arms.
CHAP. 11.—THE INDIAN FIG.
The Indian fig
39 bears but a small fruit. Always growing
spontaneously, it spreads far and wide with its vast branches,
the ends of which bend downwards into the ground to such a
degree, that they take fresh root in the course of a year, and
thus form a new plantation around the parent stock, traced in
a circular form, just as though it had been the work of the
ornamental gardener. Within the bowers thus formed, the
shepherds take up their abode in the summer, the space occupied by them being, at once, overshadowed and protected by
the bulwark which the tree thus throws around; a most
graceful sight, whether we stand beneath and look upwards,
or whether we view its arcaded foliage from a distance. The
higher branches, however, shoot upwards to a very considerable height, and, by their number, form quite a grove, spring
ing aloft from the vast trunk of the parent tree, which
overspreads, very frequently, a space of sixty paces in extent,
while the shade that is thrown by it will cover as much as
a couple of stadia. The broad leaves of the tree have just the
shape of an Amazonian buckler; and hence it is that the
fruit, from being quite covered by the leaves, is greatly impeded
in its growth. The fruit, indeed, of this tree is but scanty,
and never exceeds a bean in size; being ripened, however, by
the rays of the sun, as these penetrate the leaves, the figs are
remarkable for their singular lusciousness, and are quite worthy
of the marvellous tree by which they are produced. These
fig-trees are found, more particularly, in the vicinity of the
river Acesines.
40
CHAP. 12. (6.)—THE PALA: THE FRUIT CALLED ARIENA.
There is another tree
41 in India, of still larger size, and
even more remarkable for the size and sweetness of its fruit,
upon which the sages
42 of India live. The leaf of this tree
resembles, in shape, the wing of a bird, being three cubits in
length, and two in breadth. It puts forth its fruit from the
bark, a fruit remarkable for the sweetness of its juice, a single
one containing sufficient to satisfy four persons. The name of
this tree is "pala," and of the fruit, "ariena." They are found in
the greatest abundance in the country of the Sydraci,
43 a territory which forms the extreme limit of the expedition of Alex-
ander.
There is another
44 tree, also, very similar to this, but bearing
a still sweeter fruit, though very apt to cause derangement of
the bowels. Alexander issued strict orders, forbidding any
one in the expedition to touch this fruit.
CHAP. 13.—INDIAN TREES, THE NAMES OF WHICH ARE UNKNOWN.
INDIAN TREES WHICH BEAR FLAX.
The Macedonians
45 have made mention of various other
kinds of trees, the greater part of which, however, are without
names. There is one which resembles the terebinth
46 in every
respect, except the fruit, which is very similar to the almond,
though less in size, and remarkable for its extreme sweetness.
This tree was met with in Bactria, and some persons looked
upon it as a variety of the terebinth, rather than as bearing a
strong resemblance to it. As to the tree from which they
manufacture a kind of linen
47 cloth, in leaf it resembles the
mulberry-tree, while the calix of the fruit is similar to the
dog-rose.
48 This tree is reared in the plains, and there is no
sight throughout the cultivated parts of the country that is
more enchanting than the plantations of it.
CHAP. 14. (7.)—THE PEPPER-TREE.—THE VARIOUS KINDS OF
PEPPER—BREGMA—ZINGIBERI, OR ZIMPIBERI.
The olive-tree
49 of India is unproductive, with the sole
exception of the wild olive. In every part we meet with trees
that bear pepper,
50 very similar in appearance to our junipers,
although, indeed, it has been alleged by some authors that they
only grow on the slopes of Caucasus which lie exposed to the
sun. The seeds, however, differ from those of the juniper, in
being enclosed in small pods similar to those which we see in
the kidney-bean. These pods are picked before they open,
and when dried in the sun, make what we call "long pepper."
But if allowed to ripen, they will open gradually, and when
arrived at maturity, discover the white pepper; if left exposed to the heat of the sun, this becomes wrinkled, and changes
its colour. Even these productions, however, are subject to
their own peculiar infirmities, and are apt to become blasted
by the inclemency of the weather; in which case the seeds
are found to be rotten, and mere husks. These abortive seeds are
known by the name of "bregma," a word which in the Indian
language signifies "dead." Of all the various kinds of pepper,
this is the most pungent, as well as the very lightest, and is
remarkable for the extreme paleness of its colour. That which
is black is of a more agreeable flavour; but the white pepper
is of a milder quality than either.
The root of this tree is not, as many persons have imagined,
the same as the substance known as zimpiberi, or, as some call
it, zingiberi, or ginger, although it is very like it in taste.
For ginger, in fact, grows in Arabia and in Troglodytica, in
various cultivated spots, being a small plant
51 with a white
root. This plant is apt to decay very speedily, although it is
of intense pungency; the price at which it sells is six denarii
per pound. Long pepper is very easily adulterated with
Alexandrian mustard; its price is fifteen denarii per pound,
while that of white pepper is seven, and of black, four. It is
quite surprising that the use of pepper has come so much into
fashion, seeing that in other substances which we use, it is
sometimes their sweetness, and sometimes their appearance that
has attracted our notice; whereas, pepper has nothing in it
that can plead as a recommendation to either fruit or berry, its
only desirable quality being a certain pungency; and yet it is
for this that we import it all the way from India! Who was
the first to make trial of it as an article of food? and who, I
wonder, was the man that was not content to prepare himself
by hunger only for the satisfying of a greedy appetite? Both
pepper and ginger grow wild in their respective countries, and
yet here we buy them by weight—just as if they were so
much gold or silver. Italy,
52 too, now possesses a species of
pepper-tree, somewhat larger than the myrtle, and not very
unlike it. The bitterness of the grains is similar to that which
we may reasonably suppose to exist in the Indian pepper
when newly gathered; but it is wanting in that mature flavour which the Indian grain acquires by exposure in the sun,
and, consequently, bears no resemblance to it, either in colour
or the wrinkled appearance of the seeds. Pepper is adulterated
with juniper berries, which have the property, to a marvellous
degree, of assuming the pungency of pepper. In reference to
its weight, there are also several methods of adulterating it.
CHAP. 15.—CARYOPHYLLON, LYCION, AND THE CHIRONIAN
PYXACANTHUS.
There is, also, in India another grain which bears a considerable resemblance to pepper, but is longer and more brittle;
it is known by the name of caryophyllon.
53 It is said that
this grain is produced in a sacred grove in India; with us it
is imported for its aromatic perfume. The same country produces, also, a thorny shrub, with grains which bear a resemblance to pepper, and are of a remarkably bitter taste. The
leaves of this shrub are small, like those of the cyprus;
54 the
branches are three cubits in length, the bark pallid, and the
roots wide-spreading and woody, and of a colour resembling
that of boxwood. By boiling this root with the seed in a
copper vessel, the medicament is prepared which is known by
the name of lycion.
55 This thorny shrub grows, also, on
Mount Pelion;
56 this last kind is much used for the purpose
of adulterating the medicament above mentioned. The root
of the asphodel, ox-gall, wormwood, sumach, and the amurca
of olive oil, are also employed for a similar purpose. The best
lycion for medicinal purposes, is that which has a froth on its
surface; the Indians send it to us in leather bottles, made of
the skin of the camel or the rhinoceros. The shrub itself is
known by some persons in Greece under the name of the
Chironian pyxacanthus.
57
CHAP. 16. (8.)—MACIR.
Macir,
58 too, is a vegetable substance that is brought from
India, being a red bark that grows upon a large root, and bears
the name of the tree that produces it; what the nature of this
tree is, I have not been able to ascertain. A decoction of this
bark, mixed with honey, is greatly employed in medicine, as a
specific for dysentery.
CHAP. 17.—SUGAR.
Arabia, too, produces sugar;
59 but that of India is the most
esteemed. This substance is a kind of honey, which collects
in reeds, white, like gum, and brittle to the teeth. The
larger pieces are about the size of a filbert; it is only employed, however, in medicine.
CHAP. 18.—TREES OF ABIANA, GEDROSIA, AND HYRCANIA.
On the frontiers of India is a country called Ariana, which
produces a thorny shrub,
60 rendered precious by the tears
which it distils. It bears some resemblance to myrrh, but is
very difficult of access, by reason of the thorns with which it
is armed. Here, too, a poisonous shrub is found, with a root
like the radish,
61 and leaves like those of the laurel, By its
powerful odour it attracts horses, and was very nearly depriving Alexander of all his cavalry upon his first arrival there,
an accident which also happened in Gedrosia. A thorny
shrub
62 has been also spoken of as a native of the same
country, with leaves like those of the laurel, the juice of
which, if sprinkled upon the eyes, is productive of blindness
in all animals. Another plant is also mentioned, with a most
remarkable odour, and full of diminutive serpents,
63 the sting
of which is sure to cause instant death. Onesicritus states,
that in the vallies of Hyrcania, there is a tree resembling the
fig, and known as the occhus,
64 from which a honey distils
for two hours every morning.
CHAP. 19. (9.)—TREES OF BACTRIANA, BDELLIUM, OR BROCHON,
OTHERWISE MALACHA, OR MALDACON, SCORDASTUM. ADULTERATIONS USED IN ALL SPICES AND AROMATICS; THE VARIOUS
TESTS OF THEM AND THEIR RESPECTIVE VALUES.
In the vicinity, too, of India, is Bactriana, in which region
we find bdellium,
65 that is so highly esteemed. This tree is of a
black colour, and about the size of the olive; it has leaves like
those of the robur, and bears a fruit similar to that of the wild
fig, and in nature resembling a kind of gum. This fruit is
by some persons called brochon, by others malacha, and by
others, again, maldacon. When of a black colour, and rolled
up in cakes, it bears the name of hadrobolon. This substance
ought to be transparent and the colour of wax, odoriferous,
unctuous when subjected to friction, and bitter to the taste,
though without the slightest acidity. When used for sacred
purposes, it is steeped in wine, upon which it emits a still
more powerful odour. The tree is a native of both India and
Arabia, as well as Media and Babylon; some persons give to
the bdellium that is imported by way of Media, the name of
peraticum.
66 This last is remarkable for its brittleness, while,
at the same time, it is harder and more bitter than the other
kinds; that of India, on the other hand, is moister, and gummy.
This last sort is adulterated by means of almonds, while the
various other kinds are falsified with the bark of scordastum,
that being the name of a tree
67 the gum of which strongly resembles bdellium. These aduiterations, however, are to be
detected—and let it suffice to mention it here, in relation to all
other perfumes as well—by the smell, the colour, the weight,
the taste, and the action of fire. The bdellium of Bactriana
is shining and dry, and covered with numerous white spots
resembling the finger-nails; besides which, it should be of a
certain weight, heavier or lighter than which it ought not to
be. The price of bdellium, in its pure state, is three denarii
per pound.
CHAP. 20.—TREES OF PERSIS.
Adjoining the countries which we have previously mentioned
is Persis, lying along the shores of the Red Sea, which, when
describing
68 it, we have mentioned as the Persian Sea, the tides
of which penetrate far into the land. The trees in these
regions are of a marvellous nature; for, corroded by the action
of the salt, and bearing a considerable resemblance to vegetable substances that have been thrown up and abandoned by
the tide, they are seen to embrace the arid sands of the seashore with their naked roots, just like so many polypi. When
the tide rises, buffeted by the waves, there they stand, fixed
and immoveable; nay, more, at high water they are completely
covered; a fact which proves to conviction, that they derive
their nutriment from the salt contained in the water. The
size of these trees is quite marvellous; in appearance they
strongly resemble the arbute; the fruit, which on the outside
is very similar to the almond, has a spiral kernel within.
69
CHAP. 21. (10.)—TREES OF THE ISLANDS OF THE PERSIAN SEA.
THE COTTON TREE.
In the same gulf, there is the island of Tylos,
70 covered with
a forest
71 on the side which looks towards the East, where it
is washed also by the sea at high tides. Each of the trees
is in size as large as the fig; the blossoms are of an indescribable sweetness, and the fruit is similar in shape to a lupine,
but so rough and prickly, that it is never touched by any animal. On a more elevated plateau of the same island, we find
trees that bear wool, but of a different nature from those of the
Seres;
72 as in these trees the leaves produce nothing at all,
and, indeed, might very readily be taken for those of the vine,
were it not that they are of smaller size. They bear a kind of
gourd, about the size of a quince;
73 which, when arrived at
maturity, bursts asunder and discloses a ball of down, from
which a costly kind of linen cloth is made.
(11.) This tree is known by the name of gossypinus:
74
the smaller island of Tylos, which is ten miles distant from the
larger one, produces it in even greater abundance.
CHAP. 22.—THE TREE CALLED CYNA. TREES FROM WHICH
FABRICS FOR CLOTHING ARE MADE IN THE EAST.
Juba states, that about a certain shrub there grows a woolly
down, from which a fabric is manufactured, preferable even to
those of India. He adds, too, that certain trees of Arabia,
from which vestments are made, are called cynæ, and that they
have a leaf similar to that of the palm. Thus do their very
trees afford clothing for the people of India. In the islands of
Tylos, there is also another tree, with a blossom like the white
violet
75 in appearance, though four times as large, but it is
destitute of smell, a very remarkable fact in these climates.
CHAP. 23.—A COUNTRY WHERE THE TREES NEVER LOSE THEIR
LEAVES.
There is also another tree similar to the preceding one, but
with a thicker foliage, and a blossom like the rose. This flower
shuts
76 at night, and, beginning to open towards sun-rise,
appears in full blow by mid-day; the natives are in the habit
of saying that in this way it goes to sleep. The same island
bears also the palm, the olive, the vine, and the fig, with
various other kinds of fruit. None of the trees in this island
lose their leaves;
77 it is abundantly watered by cool streams,
and receives the benefit of rain.
CHAP. 24.—THE VARIOUS USEFUL PRODUCTS OF TREES.
Arabia, which is in the vicinity of these islands, requires
that we should make some distinction in its vegetable products,
seeing that here the various parts of trees which are employed for useful purposes are the root, the branches, the
bark, the juices, the gum, the wood, the shoots, the blossoms,
the leaves, and the fruit.
CHAP. 25. (12.)—COSTUS.
A root and a leaf, however, are the productions which are
held in the very highest estimation in India. The root is that
of the costus;
78 it has a burning taste in the mouth, and a
most exquisite odour; in other respects, the branches are good
for nothing. In the island of Patale,
79 situate at the very
mouth of the river Indus, there are two kinds of costus found,
the black and the white; the last is considered the best. The
price of it is five denarii per pound.
CHAP. 26.—NARD. THE TWELVE VARIETIES OF THE PLANT.
Of the leaf, which is that of the nard,
80 it is only right to
speak somewhat more at length, as it holds the principal place
among our unguents. The nard is a shrub with a heavy,
thick root, but short, black, brittle, and yet unctuous as well;
it has a musty smell, too, very much like that of the cyperus,
with a sharp, acrid taste, the leaves being small, and growing
in tufts. The heads of the nard spread out into ears; hence
it is that nard is so famous for its two-fold production, the
spike or ear, and the leaf. There is another kind, again, that
grows on the banks of the Ganges, but is altogether condemned, as being good for nothing; it bears the name of
ozænitis,
81 and emits a fetid odour. Nard is adulterated
with a sort of plant called pseudo-nard,
82 which is found
growing everywhere, and is known by its thick, broad leaf,
and its sickly colour, which inclines to white. It is sophisticated, also, by being mixed with the root of the genuine
nard, which adds very considerably to its weight. Gum is
also used for the same purpose, antimony, and cyperus; or,
at least, the outer coat of the cyperus. Its genuineness is tested
by its lightness, the redness of its colour, its sweet smell, and
the taste more particularly, which parches the mouth, and
leaves a pleasant flavour behind it; the price of spikenard is
one hundred denarii per pound.
Leaf
83 nard varies in price according to the size; for that
which is known by the name of hadrosphærum, consisting of
the larger leaves, sells at forty denarii per pound; when the
leaves are smaller, it is called mesosphærum, and is sold at
sixty. But that which is considered the most valuable of all,
is known as microsphærum, and consists of the very smallest
of the leaves; it sells at seventy-five denarii per pound. All
these varieties of nard have an agreeable odour, but it is most
powerful when fresh. If the nard is old when gathered, that
which is of a black colour is considered the best.
In our part of the world, the Syrian
84 nard is held in the
next highest esteem next to this; then the Gallic;
85 and in
the third place, that of Crete,
86 which by some persons is
called "agrion," and by others "phu." This last has exactly the
leaf of the olusatrum,
87 with a stalk a cubit in length, knotted,
of a whitish colour, inclining to purple, and a root that runs
sideways; it is covered, too, with long hair, and strongly
resembles the foot of a bird. Field nard is known by the
name of baccar.
88 We shall have further occasion to mention
it when we come to speak of the flowers. All these kinds of
nard, however, are to be reckoned as herbs, with the exception
of Indian nard. Of these, the Gallic kind is pulled up along
with the root, and washed in wine; after which it is dried in
the shade, and wrapped up in paper, in small parcels. It is
not very different from the Indian nard, but is lighter than
that of Syria; the price at which it sells is three denarii per
pound. The only way of testing the leaves of all these
varieties of nard, is to see that they are not brittle and parched,
instead of being dried naturally and gradually. Together
with the nard that grows in Gaul, there always
89 springs up
a herb, which is known by the name of hirculus, or the
"little goat," on account of its offensive smell, it being very
similar to that of the goat. This herb, too, is very much used
in the adulteration of nard, though it differs from it in the
fact that it has no stem, and its leaves are smaller; the root,
too, is not bitter, and is entirely destitute of smell.
CHAP. 27. (13.)—ASARUM, OR FOAL-FOOT.
The herb asarum,
90 too, has the properties of nard, and,
indeed, by some persons is known as wild nard. It has a leaf,
however, more like that of the ivy, only that it is rounder and
softer. The flower is purple, the root very similar to that of
the Gallic nard, and the seed is like a grape. It is of a warm
and vinous flavour, and blossoms twice a year, growing upon
hill sides that are densely shaded. The best kind is that found
in Pontus, and the next best that of Phrygia; that of Illyricum being only of third-rate quality. The root is dug up
when it is just beginning to put forth its leaves, and then dried
in the sun. It very soon turns mouldy, and loses its properties.
There has, also, been lately found a certain herb in some parts
of Greece, the leaves of which do not differ in the slightest
degree from those of the Indian nard.
CHAP. 28.—AMOMUM.—AMOMIS.
The clustered amomum
91 is very extensively used; it
grows upon a kind of wild vine that is found in India, though
some persons have been of opinion that it is borne by a shrub,
resembling the myrtle in appearance, and about the same
height as the palm. This plant, also, is plucked along with
the root, and is carefully pressed together with the hands; for
it very soon becomes brittle. That kind is held in the highest
esteem, the leaves of which bear a strong resemblance to those
of the pomegranate, being free from wrinkles, and of a red
colour. The second quality is that which is of a pallid hue.
That which has a green, grassy appearance, is not so good,
and the white is the worst of all; it assumes this appearance
when old. The price of clustered amomum is sixty denarii per
pound, but in dust it sells at only forty-nine. Amomum is produced, also, in that part of Armenia which is known as Otene;
as, also, in Media and Pontus. It is adulterated with the leaves
of the pomegranate and a solution of gum, which is employed
in order to make the leaves adhere and form clusters, like
those of the grape.
There is another substance, also, which is known by the
name of amomis;
92 it is not so full of veins as amomum,
harder, and not so odoriferous; from which it would appear,
either that it is altogether a different plant, or else that it is
amomum gathered in an unripe state.
CHAP. 29.—CARDAMOMUM.
Similar to these substances, both in name as well as the
shrub which produces it, is the cardamomum,
93 the seeds of
which are of an oblong shape. It is gathered in the same
manner both in India and Arabia. There are four different
kinds of cardamomum. That which is of a very green colour,
unctuous, with sharp angles, and very difficult to break, is the
most highly esteemed of all. The next best is of a reddish
white tint, while that of third-rate quality is shorter and
blacker, the worst of all being mottled and friable, and emitting but little smell; which, in its genuine
94 state ought to be
very similar to costum. Cardamomum grows also in Media.
The price of the best is three denarii per pound.
CHAP. 30.—THE COUNTRY OF FRANKINCENSE.
Next in affinity to cardamomum would have been cinnamomum,
95 and this we should have now proceeded to speak of, were
it not more convenient first to make mention of the treasures
of Arabia, and the reasons for which that country has received
the names of "Happy" and "Blest." The chief productions
of Arabia are frankincense and myrrh, which last it bears in
common with the country of the Troglodytæ. (14.) There is
no country in the world that produces frankincense except
Arabia,
96 and, indeed, not the whole of that. Almost in the
very centre of that region, are the Atramitæ,
97 a community of
the Sabæi, the capital of whose kingdom is Sabota, a place
situate on a lofty mountain. At a distance of eight stations
from this is the incense-bearing region, known by the name
of Saba. The Greeks say that the word signifies a "secret
mystery." This district looks towards the north-east, and
is rendered inaccessible by rocks on every side, while it is
bounded on the right by the sea, from which it is shut out by
cliffs of tremendous height. The soil of this territory is said
to be of a milky white, a little inclining to red. The forests
extend twenty schœni in length, and half that distance in
breadth. The length of the schœnus, according to the estimate of Eratosthenes, is forty stadia, or, in other words, five
miles; some persons, however, have estimated the schœnus at
no more than thirty-two stadia. In this district some lofty
hills take their rise, and the trees, which spring up spontaneously, run downwards along the declivities to the plains.
It is generally agreed that the soil is argillaceous, and that
the springs which there take their rise are but few in number,
and of a nitrous quality. Adjoining are the Minæi, the people
of another community, through whose country is the sole transit for the frankincense, along a single narrow road. The
Minæi were the first people who carried on any traffic in
frankincense, which they still do to a greater extent than any
other persons, and hence it is that it has received the appellation of "Minæan." It is the Sabæi alone, and no other
people among the Arabians, that behold the incense-tree; and,
indeed, not all of them, for it is said that there are not more
than three thousand families which have a right to claim that
privilege, by virtue of hereditary succession; and that for this
reason those persons are called sacred, and are not allowed,
while pruning the trees or gathering the harvest, to receive
any pollution, either by intercourse with women, or coming in
contact with the dead; by these religious observances it is
that the price of the commodity is so considerably enhanced.
Some persons, however, say, that the right of gathering incense in the forests belongs to all these people in common,
while others again state, that they take their turns year by
year.
CHAP. 31.—THE TREES THAT BEAR FRANKINCENSE.
Nor is it by any means agreed what is the appearance of
the incense-tree. We have sent several expeditions against
Arabia, and the Roman arms have penetrated into the greater
part of that country; indeed, Caius Cæsar,
98 the son of Augustus, even earned considerable renown there; and yet this tree
has been described by no Latin writer, at least that I know
of. The descriptions given of it by the Greek writers vary
very considerably: some of them say that it has exactly the
leaf of the pear-tree, only somewhat smaller, and of a grass-green colour. Others, again, say, that it has a rather reddish
leaf, like that of the mastich, and others, that it is a kind of
terebinth,
99 and that King Antigonus, to whom a branch of it
was brought, was of that opinion. King Juba, in the work
which he wrote and dedicated to Caius Cæsar, the son of
Augustus, who was inflamed by the wide-spread renown of
Arabia, states, that the tree has a spiral stem, and that the
branches bear a considerable resemblance to those of the Pontic
maple, while it secretes a sort of juice very similar to that of
the almond-tree. Such, he says, is the appearance of the tree
as seen in Carmania and Egypt, where it was introduced and
planted under the auspices of the Ptolemies when reigning
there. It is well known that it has a bark not unlike that of
the laurel, and, indeed, some persons have asserted that their
leaves are similar. At all events, such was the case with the
tree as it grew at Sardes: for the kings of Asia also took considerable care to have it planted there. The ambassadors
who in my time have come to Rome from Arabia, have made
all these matters more uncertain, even, than they were before;
a thing at which we may justly be surprised, seeing that
some sprigs even of the incense-tree have been brought among
us, from which we have some reason to conclude that the
parent tree is round and tapering, and that it puts forth its
shoots from a trunk that is entirely free from knots.
CHAP. 32.—VARIOUS KINDS OF FRANKINCENSE.
In former times, when they had fewer opportunities of
selling it, they used to gather the frankincense only once a
year; but at the present day, as there is a much greater demand for it, there is a second crop as well. The first, and
what we may call the natural, vintage, takes place about the
rising of the Dog-star, a period when the heat is most intense;
on which occasion they cut the tree where the bark appears
to be the fullest of juice, and extremely thin, from being distended to the greatest extent. The incision thus made is gradually extended, but nothing is removed; the consequence of
which is, that an unctuous foam oozes forth, which gradually
coagulates and thickens. When the nature of the locality requires it, this juice is received upon mats of palm-leaves, though
in some places the space around the tree is made hard by being
well rammed down for the purpose. The frankincense that
is gathered after the former method, is in the purest state,
though that which falls on the ground is the heaviest in
weight: that which adheres to the tree is pared off with an
iron instrument, which accounts for its being found mingled
with pieces of bark.
The forest is allotted in certain portions, and such is the
mutual probity of the owners, that it is quite safe from all
depredation; indeed, there is no one left to watch the trees
after the incisions are made, and yet no one is ever known to
plunder his neighbour. But, by Hercules! at Alexandria,
where the incense is dressed for sale, the workshops can never
be guarded with sufficient care; a seal is even placed upon the
workmen's aprons, and a mask put upon the head, or else a
net with very close meshes, while the people are stripped
naked before they are allowed to leave work. So true it is
that punishments afford less security among us than is to be
found by these Arabians amid their woods and forests! The
incense which has accumulated during the summer is gathered
in the autumn: it is the purest of all, and is of a white colour.
The second gathering takes place in spring, incisions being
made in the bark for that purpose during the winter: this,
however, is of a red colour, and not to be compared with the
other incense. The first, or superior kind of incense, is known
as carfiathum,
100 the latter is called dathiathum. It is thought,
also, that the incense which is gathered from the tree while
young is the whitest, though the produce of the old trees has
the most powerful smell; some persons, too, have an impression that the best incense is found in the islands, but Juba
asserts that no incense at all is grown there.
That incense which has hung suspended in globular drops is
known to us as "male" frankincense, although it is mostly
the case that we do not use the term "male" except in contradistinction to the word "female:" it has been attributed,
however, to religious scruples, that the name of the other sex
was not employed as a denomination for this substance. Some
persons, again, are of opinion that the male frankincense has
been so called from its resemblance
101 to the testes of the male.
The incense, however, that is the most esteemed of all is that
which is mammose, or breast-shaped, and is produced when
one drop has stopped short, and another, following close upon
it, has adhered, and united with it. I find it stated that one
of these lumps used to make quite a handful, at a time when
men displayed less eagerness to gather it, and it was allowed
more time to accumulate. The Greeks call such lumps as
these by the name of stagonia
102 and atomus,
103 while the smaller
pieces are called orobia.
104 The fragments which are broken off
by shaking the tree are known to us as manna.
105 Even at the
present day, however, there are drops found which weigh one-third of a mina, or, in other words, twenty-eight denarii.
Alexander the Great, when a boy, was on one occasion loading
the altars with frankincense with the greatest prodigality,
upon which his tutor Leonides
106 remarked to him that it
would be time to worship the gods in such a lavish manner
as that, when he had conquered the countries that produced
the frankincense. After Alexandria had conquered Arabia,
he despatched to Leonides a ship freighted with frankincense,
and sent him word, requesting that he would now worship the
gods without stint or limit.
The incense, after being collected, is carried on camels'
backs to Sabota,
107 at which place a single gate is left open for
its admission. To deviate from the high road while conveying it, the laws have made a capital offence. At this place the
priests take by measure, and not by weight, a tenth part in
honour of their god, whom they call Sabis; indeed, it is not
allowable to dispose of it before this has been done: out of
this tenth the public expenses are defrayed, for the divinity
generously entertains all those strangers who have made a certain number of days' journey in coming thither. The incense
can only be exported through the country of the Gebanitæ,
and for this reason it is that a certain tax is paid to their
king as well. Thomna,
108 which is their capital, is distant
from Gaza, a city of Judæa, on the shores of our sea, 4436
109
110
miles, the distance being divided into sixty-five days' journey
by camel. There are certain portions also of the frankincense
which are given to the priests and the king's secretaries: and
in addition to these, the keepers of it, as well as the soldiers
who guard it, the gate-keepers, and various other employes,
have their share as well. And then besides, all along the
route, there is at one place water to pay for, at another fodder,
lodging at the stations, and various taxes and imposts besides;
the consequence of which is, that the expense for each camel
before it arrives at the shores of our
111 sea is six hundred aud
eighty-eight denarii; after all this, too, there are certain payments still to be made to the farmers of the revenue of our
empire. Hence it is that a pound of the best frankincense
sells at six denarii, the second quality five, and the third
three. Among us, it is adulterated with drops of white resin,
a substance which bears a strong resemblance to it: but the
fraud may be easily detected by the methods which have
been already mentioned.
112 It is tested by the following qualities; its whiteness, size, brittleness, and the readiness with
which it takes fire when placed on heated coals; in addition
to which, it should not give to the pressure of the teeth, but
from its natural brittleness crumble all to pieces.
CHAP. 33. (15.)—MYRRH.
According to some authors, myrrh
113 is the produce of a tree
that grows in the same forests as the incense-tree, though
most say that they grow in different places: but the fact is
that myrrh grows in many parts of Arabia, as will be seen
when we come to speak of the several varieties of it. A sort
that is highly esteemed is brought from the islands
114 also, and
the Sabæi even cross the sea to procure it in the country of
the Troglodytæ. It is grown also by being transplanted, and
when thus cultivated is greatly preferred to that which is
grown in the forests. The plant is greatly improved by raking
and baring the roots; indeed, the cooler the roots are kept, the
better it is.
CHAP. 34.—THE TREES WHICH PRODUCE MYRRH.
The tree grows to the height of five cubits, and has thorns
upon it: the trunk is hard and spiral, and thicker than that
of the incense-tree, and much more so at the root than at the
upper part of the tree. Some authors have said that the bark
is smooth like that of the arbute, others, that it is rough and
covered with thorns: it has the leaf of the olive, but more wavy,
with sharp points at the edges: Juba says, however, that it
resembles the leaf of the olusatrum. Some again say that it
resembles the juniper,
115 only that it is rougher and bristling
with thorns, and that the leaves are of a rounder shape, though
they have exactly the taste of the juniper. There have been
some writers who have incorrectly asserted that both myrrh
and frankincense are the product of the same tree.
CHAP. 35.—THE NATURE AND VARIOUS KINDS OF MYRRH.
Incisions are made in the myrrh-tree also twice a year, and at
the same season as in the incense-tree; but in the case of the
myrrh-tree they are all made the way up from the root as far as
the branches which are able to bear it. The tree spontaneously
exudes, before the incision is made, a liquid which bears the
name of stacte,
116 and to which there is no myrrh that is superior. Second only in quality to this is the cultivated myrrh:
of the wild or forest kind, the best is that which is gathered in
summer. They give no tithes of myrrh to the god, because it
is the produce of other countries as well; but the growers pay
the fourth part of it to the king of the Gebanitæ. Myrrh is
bought up indiscriminately by the common people, and then
packed into bags; but our perfumers separate it without any
difficulty, the principal tests of its goodness being its unctuousness and its aromatic smell. (16.) There are several
117 kinds
of myrrh; the first among the wild myrrhs is the Troglodytic; and the next are the Minæan, which includes the
Atramitic, and that of Ausaritis, in the kingdom of the Gebanitæ. A third kind is the Dianitic,
118 and a fourth is the
mixed myrrh, or "all-sorts;"
119 a fifth, again, is the Sambracenian, which is brought from a city in the kingdom of the
Sabæi, near the sea; and a sixth is known by the name of
Dusaritic. There is a white myrrh also, which is produced in
only one spot, and is carried for sale to the city of Messalum.
The Troglodytic myrrh is tested by its unctuousness, and its
peculiarly dry appearance: it has also a dirty, rough look
with it, but is more acrid than the other kinds. The Sambracenian myrrh has none of these faults, and is more sightly in
appearance than any of them, though it is far from being
so powerful. In general, however, the proof of its goodness
consists in its being separated in little pieces of uneven shape,
formed by the concretion of a whitish juice, which dries up
little by little. When broken it ought to exhibit white marks
like the finger-nails, and to be slightly bitter to the taste.
That of second quality is of a mottled appearance within;
while of worse quality is that which is of a black colour
within; the very worst of all is that which is black on the
outside as well.
The price of myrrh varies according to the number of purchasers. Stacte is sold at prices which vary from three denarii to forty per pound, while the very highest price of the
cultivated myrrh is eleven denarii. Erythræan myrrh, the
same, it is pretended, as Arabian myrrh, is sixteen denarii per
pound, Troglodytic also, is sixteen denarii; and that known as
odoraria, or odoriferous myrrh, sells at fourteen. Myrrh is
adulterated with pieces of mastich, and other gums; it is also
drugged with the juice of wild cucumber, in order to produce
a certain bitterness, and with litharge for the purpose of increasing its weight. Other sophistications may be discovered
on tasting it, and the gum will adhere to the teeth. But the
cleverest mode of adulterating it is with Indian myrrh,
120 a
substance which is gathered from a certain prickly shrub which
grows there. This is the only thing that India produces of
worse quality than the corresponding produce of other countries: they may, however, be very easily distinguished, that
of India being so very much inferior.
CHAP. 36. (17.)—MASTICH.
The transition, therefore,
121 is very easy to mastich, which
grows upon another prickly shrub of India and Arabia, known
by the name of laina. Of mastich as well there are two different kinds; for in Asia and Greece there is also found a herb
which puts forth leaves from the root, and bears a thistly
head, resembling an apple, and full of seeds. Upon an incision being made in the upper part of this plant drops distil
from it, which can hardly be distinguished from the genuine
mastich. There is, again, a third sort,
122 found in Pontus, but
more like bitumen than anything else. The most esteemed,
however, of all these, is the white mastich of Chios, the price
of which is twenty denarii per pound, while the black mastich
sells at twelve. It is said that the mastich of Chios exudes
from the lentisk in the form of a sort of gum: like frankincense, it is adulterated with resin.
CHAP. 37.—LADANUM AND STOBOLON.
Arabia, too, still boasts of her ladanum.
123 Many writers
have stated that this substance is the fortuitous result of an accidental injury inflicted upon a certain odoriferous plant, under
the following circumstances: the goat, they say, which is in
general an animal that is extremely mischievous to foliage, is
particularly fond of the shrubs that are odoriferous, as if, indeed, it were really sensible of the value that is set upon
them. Hence it is that as the animal crops the sprouting
shoots of the branches which are swollen with a liquid juice
of remarkable sweetness, these juices drop and become mingled together, and are then wiped up by the shaggy hairs of
its unlucky beard. Being there mingled with the dust, these
juices form knots and tufts, and are then dried by the sun;
and hence the circumstance is accounted for that in the ladanum which is imported by us we find goats' hairs. This,
however, we are told, occurs nowhere but among the Nabatæi,
124 a people of Arabia, who border upon Syria. The more
recent writers call this substance by the name of stobolon, and
state that in the forests of Arabia the trees are broken by the
goats while browzing, and that the juices in consequence adhere to their shaggy hair; but the genuine ladanum, they
assure us, comes from the island of Cyprus. I make mention of
this in order that every kind of odoriferous plant may be taken
some notice of, even though incidentally and not in the order
of their respetive localities. They say also that this Cyprian
ladanum is collected in the same manner as the other, and
that it forms a kind of greasy substance or œsypum,
125 which
adheres to the beards and shaggy legs of the goats; but that
it is produced from the flowers of the ground-ivy, which they
have nibbled when in quest of their morning food, a time at
which the whole island is covered with dew. After this, they
say, when the fogs are dispersed by the sun, the dust adheres
to their wet coats, and the ladanum is formed, which is afterwards taken off of them with a comb.
There are some authors who give to the plant of Cyprus,
from which it is made, the name of leda; and hence it is that
we find it also called ledanum. They say, also, that a viscous
substance settles upon this plant, and, that, by the aid of
strings wound around it, its leaves are rolled into balls, from
which a kind of cake is made. Hence it is, that in Cyprus, as
well as in Arabia, there are two kinds of ladanum; the one
natural, and mingled with earth, and the other artificial: the
former is friable, while the latter is of a viscous nature.
It is stated, also, that this substance is the produce of a
shrub originally found in Carmania, and propagated by plants,
by order of the Ptolemies, in the parts beyond Egypt; while
other authorities are found, which say that it grows on the
incense tree, and is gathered like gum, from incisions made in
the bark, after which it is collected in bags of goat-skin. That
of the most approved quality, sells at the rate of forty asses
per pound. Ladanum is adulterated with myrtle berries, and
filth taken from the fleeces of other animals besides the goat.
If genuine, it ought to have a wild and acrid smell, in some
measure redolent of the desert places where it is produced: it
is dry and parched in appearance, but becomes soft the moment
it is touched. When ignited, it gives a brilliant flame, and
emits a powerful but pleasant odour; if mixed with myrtle
berries, its spurious quality is immediately discovered by their
crackling in the fire. In addition to this, the genuine ladanum has more grits, or stony particles, adhering to it, than
dust.
CHAP. 38.—ENHÆMON.
In Arabia, too, the olive-tree distils a sort of tear, with
which the Indians make a medicament, known by the Greeks
as enhæmon;
126 it is said to be of wonderful efficacy in contracting and healing wounds and sores. These trees,
127 situate
on the coasts there, are covered by the sea at high water,
without the berries suffering the slightest injury, although it
is a well-known fact, that the salt collects upon the leaves.
All these trees are peculiar to Arabia, but it has some few
besides, in common with other countries, of which we shall
make mention elsewhere, the kinds growing in Arabia being
of inferior quality. The people of that country have a wonderful regard for the perfumes of foreign parts, and import
them from places at a considerable distance; so soon are men
sated with what they have of their own, and so covetous are
they of what belongs to others.
CHAP. 39.—THE TREE CALLED BRATUS.
Hence it is, that they import from the country of the
Elymæi
128 the wood of a tree called bratus,
129 which is similar in
appearance to a spreading cypress. Its branches are of a
whitish colour, and the wood, while burning, emits a pleasant
odour; it is highly spoken of by Claudius Cæsar, in his
History,
130 for its marvellous properties. He states that the
Parthians sprinkle the leaves of it in their drink, that its smell
closely resembles that of the cedar, and that the smoke of it is
efficacious in counteracting the effects of smoke emitted by
other wood. This tree grows in the countries that lie beyond
the Pasitigris,
131 in the territory of the city of Sittaca, upon
Mount Zagrus.
CHAP. 40.—THE TREE CALLED STOBRUM.
The Arabians import from Carmania also the wood of a
tree called stobrum,
132 which they employ in fumigations, by
steeping it in palm wine, and then setting fire to it. The
odour first ascends to the ceiling, and then descends in volumes
to the floor; it is very agreeable, but is apt to cause an
oppression of the head, though unattended with pain; it is
used for promoting sleep in persons when ill. For these
branches of commerce, they have opened the city of Carræ,
133
which serves as an entrepot, and from which place they were
formerly in the habit of proceeding to Gabba, at a distance of
twenty days' journey, and thence to Palæstina, in Syria. But
at a later period, as Juba informs us, they began to take the
road, for the purposes of this traffic, to Charax
134 and the
kingdom of the Parthians. For my own part, it would appear
to me that they were in the habit of importing these commodities among the Persians, even before they began to convey
them to Syria or Egypt; at least Herodotus bears testimony to
that effect, when he states that the Arabians paid a yearly
tribute of one thousand talents, in frankincense, to the kings
of Persia.
From Syria they bring back storax,
135 which, burnt upon
the hearth, by its powerful smell dispels that loathing of their
own perfumes with which these people are affected. For in
general there are no kinds of wood in use among them, except
those which are odoriferous; indeed, the Sabæi are in the
habit of cooking their food with incense wood, while others,
again, employ that of the myrrh tree; and hence, the smoke
and smells that pervade their cities and villages are no other
than the very same which, with us, proceed from the altars.
For the purpose of qualifying this powerful smell, they burn
storax in goat-skins, and so fumigate their dwellings. So true
it is, that there is no pleasure to be found, but what the continual enjoyment of it begets loathing. They also burn this
substance to drive away the serpents, which are extremely
numerous in the forests which bear the odoriferous trees.
CHAP. 41. (18.)—WHY ARABIA WAS CALLED "HAPPY."
Arabia produces neither cinnamon nor cassia; and this is
the country styled "Happy" Arabia! False and ungrateful
does she prove herself in the adoption of this surname, which
she would imply to have been received from the gods above;
whereas, in reality, she is indebted for it far more to the gods
below.
136 It is the luxury which is displayed by man, even in
the paraphernalia of death, that has rendered Arabia thus
"happy;" and which prompts him to burn with the dead
what was originally understood to have been produced for the
service of the gods. Those who are likely to be the best
acquainted with the matter, assert that this country does not
produce, in a whole year, so large a quantity of perfumes as
was burnt by the Emperor Nero at the funeral obsequies of
his wife Poppæa. And then let us only take into account
the vast number of funerals that are celebrated throughout the
whole world each year, and the heaps of odours that are
piled up in honour of the bodies of the dead; the vast quantities, too, that are offered to the gods in single grains; and yet,
when men were in the habit of offering up to them the salted
cake, they did not show themselves any the less propitious;
nay, rather, as the facts themselves prove, they were even
more favourable to us than they are now. But it is the sea of
Arabia that has even a still greater right to be called "happy,"
for it is this that furnishes us with pearls. At the very lowest
computation, India, the Seres, and the Arabian Peninsula,
withdraw from our empire one hundred millions of sesterces
every year—so dearly do we pay for our luxury and our
women. How large a portion, too, I should like to know, of
all these perfumes, really comes to the gods of heaven, and the
deities of the shades below?
CHAP. 42. (19.)—CINNAMOMUM.137 XYLOCINNAMUM.
Fabulous antiquity, and Herodotus
138 more particularly, have
related that cinnamomum and cassia are found in the nests of
certain birds, and principally that of the phœnix, in the districts where Father Liber was brought up; and that these substances either fall from the inaccessible rocks and trees in
which the nests are built, in consequence of the weight of the
pieces of flesh which the birds carry up, or else are brought
down by the aid of arrows loaded with lead. It is said, also,
that cassia grows around certain marshes, but is protected by
a frightful kind of bat armed with claws, and by winged serpents as well. All these tales, however, have been evidently
invented for the purpose of enhancing the prices of these
commodities. Another story, too, bears them company, to the
effect that under the rays of the noon-day sun, the entire
peninsula exhales a certain indescribable perfume composed of
its numerous odours; that the breezes, as they blow from it,
are impregnated with these odours, and, indeed, were the first
to announce the vicinity of Arabia to the fleets of Alexander
the Great, while still far out at sea. All this, however, is
false; for cinnamomum, or cinnamum, which is the same thing,
grows in the country of the Æthiopians,
139 who are united by
intermarriages with the Troglodytæ. These last, after buying
it of their neighbours, carry it over vast tracts of sea, upon
rafts, which are neither steered by rudder, nor drawn or
impelled by oars or sails. Nor yet are they aided by any of the
resources of art, man alone, and his daring boldness, standing
in place of all these; in addition to which, they choose the
winter season, about the time of the equinox, for their voyage,
for then a south easterly wind is blowing; these winds guide
them in a straight course from gulf to gulf, and after they
have doubled the promonotory of Arabia, the north east wind
carries them to a port of the Gebanitæ, known by the name of
Ocilia.
140 Hence it is that they steer for this port in preference;
and they say that it is almost five years before the merchants are able to effect their return, while many perish on
the voyage. In return for their wares, they bring back articles of glass and copper, cloths, buckles, bracelets, and necklaces; hence it is that this traffic depends more particularly
upon the capricious tastes and inclinations of the female sex.
The cinnamon shrub
141 is only two cubits in height, at the
most, the lowest being no more than a palm in height. It is
about four fingers in breadth, and hardly has it risen six
fingers from the ground, before it begins to put forth shoots and
suckers. It has then all the appearance of being dry and
withered, and while it is green it has no odour at all. The leaf is
like that of wild marjoram, and it thrives best in dry localities,
being not so prolific in rainy weather; it requires, also, to be
kept constantly clipped. Though it grows on level ground, it
thrives best among tangled brakes and brambles, and hence
it is extremely difficult to be gathered. It is never gathered
unless with the permission of the god, by whom some suppose
Jupiter to be meant; the Æthiopians, however, call him
Assabinus.
142 They offer the entrails of forty-four oxen, goats,
and rams, when they implore his permission to do so, but after
all, they are not allowed to work at it before sunrise or after
sunset. A priest divides the branches with a spear, and sets
aside one portion of them for the god; after which, the dealer
stores away the rest in lumps. There is another account given,
which states that a division is made between the gatherers and
the sun, and that it is divided into three portions, after which
lots are twice drawn, and the share which falls to the sun is
left there, and forthwith ignites spontaneously.
The thinnest parts in the sticks, for about a palm in length,
are looked upon as producing the finest cinnamon; the part
that comes next, though not quite so long, is the next best,
and so on downwards. The worst of all is that which is
nearest the roots, from the circumstance that in that part
there is the least bark, the portion that is the most esteemed:
hence it is that the upper part of the tree is preferred, there
being the greatest proportion of bark there. As for the wood,
it is held in no esteem at all, on account of the acrid taste
which it has, like that of wild marjoram; it is known as
xylocinnamum.
143 The price of cinnamomum is ten denarii per
pound. Some writers make mention of two kinds of cinnamon, the white and the black: the white was the one that was
formerly preferred, but now, on the contrary, the black is held
in the highest estimation, and the mottled, even, is preferred to
the white. The most certain test, however, of the goodness of
cinnamon is its not being rough, and the fact that the pieces
when rubbed together do not readily crumble to powder. That
which is soft is more particularly rejected, which is the case,
also, when the outer bark too readily falls off.
The right of regulating the sale of the cinnamon belongs
solely to the king of the Gebanitæ, who opens the market for it
by public proclamation. The price of it was formerly as much
as a thousand denarii per pound; which was afterwards increased
to half as much again, in consequence, it is said, of the forests
having been set on fire by the barbarians, from motives of
resentment; whether this took place through any injustice
exercised by those in power, or only by accident, has not been
hitherto exactly ascertained. Indeed, we find it stated by
some authors, that the south winds that prevail in these parts
are sometimes so hot as to set the forests on fire. The Emperor Vespasianus Augustus was the first to dedicate in the
temples of the Capitol and the goddess Peace chaplets of cinnamon inserted in embossed
144 gold. I, myself, once saw in the
temple of the Palatium, which his wife Augusta
145 dedicated to
her husband the late emperor Augustus, a root of cinnamon
of great weight, placed in a patera of gold: from it drops used
to distil every year, which congealed in hard grains. It remained there until the temple was accidentally destroyed by fire.
CHAP. 43.—CASSIA.
Cassia
146 is a shrub also, which grows not far from the plains
where cinnamon is produced, but in the mountainous localities; the branches of it are, however, considerably thicker than
those of cinnamon. It is covered with a thin skin rather than
a bark, and, contrary to what is the case with cinnamon, it
is looked upon as the most valuable when the bark falls off
and crumbles into small pieces. The shrub is three cubits in
height, and the colours which it assumes are threefold: when
it first shoots from the ground, for the length of a foot, it is
white; after it has attained that height, it is red for half a
foot, and beyond that it is black. This last is the part that
is held in the highest esteem, and next to it the portion that
comes next, the white part being the least valued of all. They
cut the ends of the branches to the length of two fingers, and
then sew them in the fresh skins of cattle that have been
killed expressly for the purpose; the object being that the
skins may putrefy, and the maggots generated thereby may
eat away the woody parts, and so excavate
147 the bark; which
is so intensely bitter, that it is quite safe from their attacks.
That which is the freshest is the most highly esteemed; it
has a very delicate smell, and is so extremely hot to the taste,
that it may be said to burn the tongue, rather than gradually
warm the mouth. It is of a purple colour, and though of
considerable volume, weighs but very little in comparison; the
outer coat forms into short tubes which are by no means easily
broken: this choice kind of cassia, the barbarians call by the
name of lada. There is another sort, again, which is called
balsamodes,
148 because it has a smell like that of balsam, but it
is bitter; for which reason it is more employed for medicinal
purposes, just as the black cassia is used for unguents. There
is no substance known that is subject to greater variations in
price: the best qualities sell at fifty denarii per pound, others,
again, at five.
(20.) To these varieties the dealers have added another,
which they call daphnoides,
149 and give it the surname of isocinnamon;
150 the price at which it sells is three hundred
denarii per pound. It is adulterated with storax, and, in
consequence of the resemblance of the bark, with very small
sprigs of laurel. Cassia is also planted in our
151 part of the
world, and, indeed, at the extreme verge of the Empire, on the
banks of the river Rhenus, where it flourishes when planted
in the vicinity of hives of bees. It has not, however, that
scorched colour which is produced by the excessive heat of the
sun; nor has it, for the same reason, a similar smell to that
which comes from the south.
CHAP. 44.—CANCAMUM AND TARUM.
From the confines of the country which produces cinnamon
and cassia, cancamum
152 and tarum
153 are imported; but these
substances are brought by way of the Nabatæan Troglodytæ,
a colony of the Nabatæi.
CHAP. 45. (21.)—SERICHATUM AND GABALIUM.
Thither, too, are carried serichatum
154 and gabalium, aroma.
tics which the Arabians rear for their own consumption, and
which are only known by name in our part of the world,
though they grow in the same country as cinnamon and cassia.
Still, however, serichatum does reach us occasionally, and is
employed by some persons in the manufacture of unguents. It
is purchased at the rate of six denarii per pound.
CHAP. 46.—MYROBALANUM.
In the country of the Troglodytæ, the Thebais, and the parts
of Arabia which separate Judæa from Egypt, myrobalanum
155 is
commonly found; it is provided by Nature for unguents, as
from its very name would appear. From its name, also, it is
evident that it is the nut of a tree, with a leaf similar to that
of the heliotropium, which we shall have to mention when
speaking of the herbs. The fruit of this tree is about the size
of a filbert. The kind that grows in Arabia is known as
Syriaca, and is white, while, on the other hand, that which
grows in the Thebais is black: the former is preferred for the
quality of the oil extracted from it, though that which is pro-
duced in the Thebais yields it in larger quantities. Among
these various kinds, that which is sent from the country of the
Troglodytæ is the worst of all. There are some persons who
prefer that of Æthiopia
156 to all of these, the nut of which is
black, and not oleaginous; it has only a very small kernel, but
the liquid which is extracted from it is more odoriferous than
that of the other kinds; it grows, too, in a champaign, open
country. It is said that the Egyptian nut is even more oleaginous, being of a reddish colour with a thicker shell, and
that the plant, although it grows in wet, marshy spots, is
shorter and drier than the other kinds. The Arabian nut,
again, is said to be of a green colour and of smaller size, but
harder and more compact, from the circumstance that it grows
in mountainous districts. The best of all, however, is that of
Petra, which comes from a city mentioned
157 on a previous
occasion; it has a black shell, but the kernel is white. The
perfumers, however, only extract the juices from the shells;
but medical men pound the kernels, pouring warm water on
them, little by little, as they do it.
CHAP. 47. (22.)—PHŒNICOBALANUS.
The fruit of the palm in Egypt, which is known by the
name of adipsos,
158 is put to a similar use in unguents, and is
held next in esteem after the myrobalanum. It is of a green
colour, has exactly the smell of a quince, and has no stone or
nut within. It is gathered a little before it begins to ripen.
That which is left ungathered is known as phœnicobalanus;
159
it turns black, and has a tendency to inebriate the person who
eats of it. The price of myrobalanum is two denarii per pound.
The shop-keepers give this name also to the dregs of the
unguent that is made with it.
CHAP. 48.—THE SWEET-SCENTED CALAMUS;160 THE SWEET-SCENTED
RUSH.
Scented calamus also, which grows in Arabia, is common to
both India and Syria, that which grows in the last country
being superior to all the rest. At a distance of one hundred
and fifty stadia from the Mediterranean, between Mount
Libanus and another mountain of no note (and not, as some
have supposed, Antilibanus), there is a valley of moderate
size, situate in the vicinity of a lake, the marshy swamps of
which are dried up every summer. At a distance of thirty
stadia from this lake grow the sweet-scented calamus and
rush. We shall here make some further mention of this rush
as well, although we have set apart another Book for plants
of that description, seeing that it is our object here to describe all the different materials used for unguents. These
plants differ in appearance in no respect from others of their
kind; but the calamus, which has the more agreeable smell of
the two, attracts by its odour at a considerable distance, and
is softer to the touch than the other. The best is the kind
which is not so brittle, but breaks into long flakes, and not
short, like a radish. In the hollow stalk there is a substance
like a cobweb, which is generally known by the name of the
"flower:" those plants which contain the most of it are
esteemed the best. The other tests of its goodness are its
being of a black colour—those which are white not being
esteemed; besides which, to be of the very best quality it
should be short, thick, and pliant when broken. The price of
the scented calamus is eleven, and of the rush fifteen denarii
per pound. It is said that the sweet-scented rush is to be met
with also in Campania.
CHAP. 49.—HAIMONIACUM.
We have now departed from the lands which look towards
the ocean to enter upon those which have an aspect towards
our seas. (23.) Africa, which lies below Æthiopia, distils
a tear-like gum in its sands, called hammoniacum,
161 the name of
which has passed to the oracle of Hammon, situate near the tree
which produces it. This substance, which is also called meto
pion,
162 bears a strong resemblance to a resin or a gum. There
are two kinds of ammoniacum; that to which the name is
given of thrauston, and which bears a resemblance to male
frankincense, being the kind that is the most esteemed, and
that which is known as phyrama, being of an unctuous and
resinous nature. This substance is adulterated by means of
sand, which has all the appearance of having adhered to it
during its growth: hence it is greatly preferred when the
pieces are extremely small, and in the purest state possible.
The price of hammoniacum of the best quality is forty asses
per pound.
CHAP. 50.—SPHAGNOS.
Below these countries, and in the province of Cyrenaica, the
perfume called sphagnos
163 is found in the highest state of per-
fection: there are some who call it by the name of bryon.
The sphagnos of Cyprus holds the second rank, and that of
Phœnicia the third. It is said that this plant is produced in
Egypt also, and in Gaul as well, and I see no reason to doubt
that such is the fact, for this name is given to certain white
shaggy tufts upon trees, such as we often see upon the quercus:
those, however, of which we are speaking, emit a most exquisite odour. The most esteemed of all are the whitest, and
those situate at the greatest height upon the tree. Those of
second quality are red, while those which are black are not of
the slightest value. The sphagnos, too, that is produced on
islands and among rocks,
164 is held in no esteem, as well as all
those varieties which have the odour of the palm-tree, and not
that which is so peculiarly their own.
CHAP. 51.—CYPROS.
The cyprus
165 is a tree of Egypt, with the leaves of the ziziphus,
166 and seeds like coriander,
167 white and odoriferous.
These seeds are boiled in olive oil, and then subjected to
pressure; the product is known to us as cypros. The price of
it is five denarii per pound. The best is that produced on the
banks of the Nile, near Canopus, that of second quality coming
from Ascalon in Judæa, and the third in estimation for the
sweetness of its odour, from the island of Cyprus. Some people
will have it that this is the same as the tree which in Italy we
call ligustrum.
168
CHAP. 52.—ASPALATHOS, OR ERYSISCEPTRUM.
In the same country,
169 too, grows aspalathos,
170 a white,
thorny shrub, the size of a moderate tree, and with flowers
like the rose, the root of which is in great request for unguents. It is said that every shrub over which the rainbow
is extended is possessed of the sweet odour that belongs to
the aspalathos, but that if the aspalathos is one of them, its
scent is something quite indescribable. Some persons call this
plant erysisceptrum,
171 and others, again, sceptrum. The proof
of its genuineness is its red or fiery colour; it is also compact
to the touch, and has the smell of castoreum:
172 it is sold at
the rate of five denarii per pound.
CHAP. 53.—MARON.
In Egypt, too, grows marum,
173 though of inferior quality
to that of Lydia, which last has larger leaves, covered with
spots. Those of the other are shorter and smaller, and give
out a powerful scent.
CHAP. 54. (25.)—BALSAMUM; OPOBALSAMUM; AND XYLOBAL-
SAMUM.
But to all other odours that of balsamum
174 is considered
preferable, a plant that has been only bestowed by Nature
upon the land of Judæa. In former times it was cultivated in
two gardens only, both of which belonged to the kings of that
country: one of them was no more than twenty jugera in
extent, and the other somewhat smaller. The emperors Ves-
pasianus and Titus had this shrub exhibited at Rome; indeed,
it is worthy of signal remark, that since the time of Pompeius
Magnus, we have been in the habit of carrying trees even in
our triumphal processions. At the present day this tree pays
us homage and tribute along with its native land, but it has
been found to be of altogether a different nature to that which
our own as well as foreign writers had attributed to it: for, in
fact, it bears a much stronger resemblance to the vine than to
the myrtle. This recent acquisition by conquest has learned,
like the vine, to be reproduced by mallet
175-shoots, and it
covers declivities just like the vine, which supports its own
weight without the aid of stays. When it puts forth branches
it is pruned in a similar manner, and it thrives by being well
raked at the roots, growing with remarkable rapidity, and
bearing fruit at the end of three years. The leaf bears a very
considerable resemblance to that of rue, and it is an evergreen. The Jews vented their rage upon this shrub just as
they were in the habit of doing against their own lives and
persons, while, on the other hand, the Romans protected it; indeed, combats have taken place before now in defence of a shrub.
At the present day the reproduction of it has become a duty
of the fiscal authorities, and the plants were never known to
be more numerous or of larger growth; they never exceed the
height, however, of a couple of cubits.
There are three different kinds of balsamum. The first has
a thin and hair-like foliage, and is known by the name of
eutheriston.
176 The second is of a rugged appearance, bending
downwards, full of branches, and more odoriferous than the
first; the name of this is trachy. The third kind is the
eumeces, so called, because it is taller than the others; it has
a smooth, even, bark. It is the second in quality, the eutheriston being inferior to the trachy. The seed of this plant
has a flavour strongly resembling that of wine; it is of a
reddish colour, and not without a certain amount of unctuousness; the grains of inferior quality are lighter in weight and
of a greener hue: the branches of the shrub are thicker than
those of the myrtle. Incisions are made in it either with
glass, or else a sharp stone, or knives made of bone: it being
highly injurious to touch the vital parts with iron, for in such
case it will immediately wither away and die. On the other
hand, it will allow of all the superfluous branches being pruned
away with an instrument of iron even. The hand of the
person who makes the incision is generally balanced by an
artificial guide, in order that he may not accidentally inflict a
wound in the wood beyond the bark.
A juice distils from the wound, which is known to us
as opobalsamum; it is of extraordinary sweetness,
177 but only
exudes in tiny drops, which are then collected in wool, and
deposited in small horns. When taken from out of these, the
substance is placed in new earthen vessels; it bears a strong
resemblance to a thick oil, and is of a white colour when fresh.
It soon, however, turns red, and as it hardens loses its transparency. When Alexander the Great waged war in those
parts, it was looked upon as a fair summer day's work to fill a
single concha
178 with this liquid; the entire produce of the
larger garden being six congii, and of the smaller one a single
congius; the price, too, at which it was sold was double its
weight in silver. At the present day the produce of a single
tree, even, is larger; the incisions are made three times every
summer, after which the tree is pruned.
The cuttings, too, form an article of merchandize: the fifth
year after the conquest of Judæa, these cuttings, with the
suckers, were sold for the price of eight hundred thousand
sesterces. These cuttings are called xylobalsamum,
179 and are
boiled down for mixing with unguents, and in the manufactories have been substituted for the juices of the shrub. The
bark is also in great request for medicinal purposes, but it is
the tears that are so particularly valuable; the seed holding
the second rank in estimation, the bark the third, and the
wood being the least esteemed of all. Of the wood, that kind
which resembles boxwood is considered the best: it has also
the strongest smell. The best seed is that which is the largest
in size and the heaviest in weight; it has a biting or rather
burning taste in the mouth. Balsamum is adulterated with
hypericon:
180 from Petra, but the fraud is easily detected, from
the fact that the grains of the latter are larger, comparatively
empty, and longer than those of balsamum; they are destitute
also of any pungency of smell, and have a flavour like that
of pepper.
As to the tears of balsamum, the test of their goodness is
their being unctuous to the touch, small, of a somewhat reddish
colour, and odoriferous when subjected to friction. That of
second-rate quality is white; the green and coarse is inferior,
and the black is the worst of all; for, like olive-oil, it is apt
to turn rancid when old. Of all the incisions, the produce is
considered the best of those from which the liquid has flowed
before the formation of the seed. In addition to what has
been already stated, it is often adulterated with the juice of
the seed, and it is with considerable difficulty that the fraud is
detected by a slight bitterness in the taste, which ought to be
delicate and without the slightest mixture of acidity, the only
pungency being that of the smell. It is adulterated also with
oil of roses, of cyprus, of mastich, of balanus, of turpentine,
and of myrtle, as also with resin, galbanum, and Cyprian wax,
just as occasion may serve. But the very worst adulteration
of all, is that which is effected with gum, a substance which
is dry when emptied into the hand, and falls to the bottom
when placed in water; both of which are characteristics of the
genuine commodity. Balsamum, in a genuine state, should be
quite hard, but when it is mixed with gum a brittle pellicle
forms upon it. The fraud can also be detected by the taste,
and when placed upon hot coals it may easily be seen if there
has been any adulteration with wax and resin; the flame too, in
this case, burns with a blacker smoke than when the balsamum
is pure. When mixed with honey its qualities are immediately changed, for it will attract flies even in the hand. In
addition to these various tests, a drop of pure balsamum, if
placed in luke-warm water will settle to the bottom of the
vessel, whereas, if it is adulterated, it will float upon the surface like oil, and if it has been drugged with metopion or
hammoniacum, a white circle will form around it. But the
best test of all is, that it will cause milk to curdle, and leave
no stain upon cloth. In no commodity are there practised
more palpable frauds than in this, for a sextarius of balsamum
which is sold by the fiscal authorities at three hundred denarii,
is sold again for a thousand, so vast is the profit to be derived
from increasing this liquid by sophistication. The price of
xylobalsamum is six denarii per pound.
CHAP. 55.—STORAX.
That part of Syria joining up to Judæa, and lying above
Phœnicia, produces storax, which is found in the vicinity of
Gabala and Marathus,
181 as also of Casius, a mountain of Seleucia. The tree
182 bears the same name, and has a strong
resemblance to, the quince. The tear has a harsh taste, with a
pleasant smell; in the interior it has all the appearance of a reed,
and is filled with a liquid juice. About the rising of the Dog-
star, certain small winged worms hover about this substance
and eat it away, for which reason it is often found in a rotten
state, with worm-holes full of dust. The storax next in esti-
mation after that already mentioned, comes from Pisidia,
Sidon, Cyprus, and Cilicia; that of Crete being considered the
very worst of all. That which comes from Mount Amanus,
in Syria, is highly esteemed for medicinal purposes, and even
more so by the perfumers. From whatever country it comes,
that which is of a red colour is preferred, and it should be
both unctuous as well as viscous to the touch; the worst kind
is that which crumbles like bran, and is covered all over with
a whitish mould. This substance is adulterated with the resin
of cedar or with gum, and sometimes with honey or bitter al-
monds; all which sophistications may, however, be detected by
the taste. The price of storax of the best quality is seventeen
denarii per pound. It comes also from Pamphylia, but this
last is more arid, and not so full of juice.
CHAP. 56.—GALBANUM.
Syria produces galbanum too, which grows upon the same
mountain of Amanus: it exudes from a kind of giant-fennel
183
of the same name as the resin, though sometimes it is known
as stagonitis. The kind that is the most esteemed is cartilaginous, clear like hammoniacum, and free from all ligneous
substances. Still, however, it is sometimes adulterated with
beans, or with sacopenium.
184 If ignited in a pure state, it
has the property of driving away serpents
185 by its smoke, It
is sold at five denarii per pound, and is only employed for
medicinal purposes.
CHAP. 57. (26.)—PANAX.
Syria, too, furnishes panax,
186 an ingredient used in unguents.
This plant grows also at Psophis in Arcadia, about the sources
of the Erymanthus, in Africa also, and in Macedonia. This is
a peculiar kind of giant-fennel, which stands five cubits in
height: it first throws out four leaves, and then six, which lie
close to the ground, round, and of very considerable size; those.
however, which grow towards the top resemble the leaves of
the olive. It bears its seed in certain tufts, which hang down,
just as in the fennel. The juice is obtained by incisions
made in the stalk at harvest-time, and in the root in autumn.
When in a coagulated state, it is esteemed according to its
whiteness. The next in value is that of a pallid colour, while
the black is held in no esteem. The price of that of the best
quality is two denarii per pound.
CHAP. 58.—SPONDYLIUM.
The difference between this kind of giant-fennel and that
known as spondylium,
187 consists only in the leaf, which is
smaller, and divided like that of the plane tree. It grows in
shady places only. The seed bears the same name as the plant,
and has a strong resemblance to that of hart-wort: it is only
employed in medicine.
CHAP. 59.—MALOBATHRUM.
Syria produces the malobathrum
188 also, a tree which bears a
folded leaf, with just the colour of a leaf when dried. From
this plant an oil is extracted for unguents. Egypt produces it
in still greater abundance; but that which is the most esteemed
of all comes from India, where it is said to grow in the marshes
like the lentil. It has a more powerful odour than saffron,
and has a black, rough appearance, with a sort of brackish
taste. The white is the least approved of all, and it very soon
turns musty when old. In taste it ought to be similar to
nard, when placed under the tongue. When made luke-warm
in wine, the odour which it emits is superior to any other.
The prices at which this drug ranges are something quite
marvellous, being from one denarius to four hundred per pound;
as for the leaf, it generally sells at sixty denarii per pound.
CHAP. 60. (27.)—OMPHACIUM.
Omphacium
189 is also a kind of oil, which is obtained from
two trees, the olive and the vine, by two different methods.
It is produced from the former by pressing the olive while it
is still in the white state. That is of an inferior quality which
is made from the druppa—such being the name that is given
to the olive before it is ripe and fit for food, but already
beginning to change its colour. The difference between them
is, that the latter kind is green, the former white. The omphacium that is made from the vine is extracted from either
the psythian
190 or the Aminean grape, when the grapes are
about the size of a chick-pea, just before the rising of the Dogstar. The grape is gathered when the first bloom is appearing
upon it, and the verjuice is extracted, after which the residue
191
is left to dry in the sun, due precautions being taken against
the dews of the night. The verjuice, after being collected, is
put into earthen vessels, and then, after that, stored in jars
of Cyprian copper.
192 The best kind is that which is of a
reddish colour, acrid, and dry to the taste? The price at
which it sells is six denarii per pound. Omphacium is also
made another way—the unripe grape is pounded in a mortar,
after which it is dried in the sun, and then divided into
lozenges.
CHAP. 61. (28.)—BRYON, ŒNANTHE, AND MASSARIS.
Bryon
193 also bears an affinity to these substances, being the
clusters of berries produced by the white poplar. The best
kinds grow in the vicinity of Cnidos, or in Caria, in spots that
are destitute of water, or else in dry and rugged localities. A
bryon of second-rate quality is produced from the cedar of
Lycia.
194 Œnanthe, too, bears an affinity to these substances,
being the clusters of the wild vine: it is gathered when it is
in flower, or, in other words, when it has the finest smell:
after which it is dried in the shade upon a linen sheet spread
beneath it, and then stored away in casks. The best sort is
that which comes from Parapotamia;
195 the next best kinds are
those made at Antiochia and Laodicea in Syria; and that of
third-rate quality, comes from the mountainous parts of Media;
this last, however, is preferable for medicinal purposes. Some
persons give the preference over all to that grown in the
island of Cyprus. As to that which comes from Africa, it
is solely used for medicinal purposes, being known by the
name of massaris.
196 Whatever country it may happen to be,
the white wild vine produces an œnanthe of superior quality
to the black.
CHAP. 62.—ELATE OR SPATHE.
There is another tree
197 also, that contributes to the manufacture of unguents, by some persons known under the name
of elate, but which we call abies; others again call it a palm,
and others give it the name of spathe. That of Hammonium
is the most esteemed, and that of Egypt next, after which
comes the Syrian tree. It is only odoriferous, however, in
places that are destitute of water. The tears of it are of an
unctuous nature, and are employed as an ingredient in unguents, to modify the harshness of the oil.
CHAP. 63.—CINNAMON OR COMACUM.
In Syria, too, is produced that kind of cinnamon which is also
known as comacum.
198 This is a juice which is extracted from
a nut, and very different from the extract of the real cinnamomum, though it somewhat resembles it in its agreeable smell.
The price at which it sells is forty asses per pound.
SUMMARY.—Remarkable facts, narratives, and observations,
nine hundred and seventy-four.
ROMAN AUTHORS QUOTED.—M. Varro,
199 Mucianus,
200 Virgil,
201
Fabianus,
202 Sebosus,
203 Pomponius Mela,
204 Flavius,
205 Procilius,
206
Hyginus,
207 Trogus,
208 Claudius Cæsar,
209 Cornelius Nepos,
210 Sextus Niger
211 who wrote a Greek treatise on Medicine, Cassius
Hemina,
212 L. Piso,
213 Tuditanus,
214 Antias.
215
FOREIGN AUTHORS QUOTED.—Theophrastus,
216 Herodotus,
217 Cal-
listhenes,
218 Isigonus,
219 Clitarchus,
220 Anaximenes,
221 Duris,
222 Nearchus,
223 Onesicritus,
224 Polycritus,
225 Olympiodorus,
226 Diognetus,
227 Nicobulus,
228 Anticlides,
229 Chares
230 of Mitylene, Men-
mechmus,
231 Dorotheus
232 of Athens, Lycus,
233 Antseus,
234 Ephippus,
235
Dion,
236 Demodes,
237 Ptolemy Lagus,
238 Marsyas
239 of Macedon,
Zoilus
240 of Macedon, Democritus,
241 Amphilochus,
242 Aristomachus,
243 Alexander Polyhistor,
244 Juba,
245 Apollodorus
246 who
wrote on Perfumes, Heraclides
247 the physician, Archidemus
248
the physician, Dionysius
249 the physician, Democlides
250 the
physician, Euphron
251 the physician, Muesides
252 the physician,
Diagoras
253 the physician, Iollas
254 the physician, Heraclides"
255
of Tarentum, Xenocrates
256 of Ephesus, Eratosthenes.
257